Conservation of Easel Paintings

Introduction Painting reconstructions usually suggest the reproductions of old master paintings which many conservation training programmes and art techniques courses include so that their students may learn about traditional painting techniques. Reconstructions, however, are also made to answer specific questions in conservation research, either in relation to analysis or to model proposed treatments. Such reconstructions are not necessarily fully accurate in terms of the materials, nor are they required to be, as toxicity issues alone impose practical limitations. This paper explores projects where historical accuracy, as far as is possible, is the objective. Naturally there are compromises, since modern materials are unlikely to have precisely the same chemical and morphological identity as those used in the past. However, the attempt to recreate historical recipes with a high degree of accuracy provides sometimes surprising outcomes and unanticipated results The Purpose Art tech...

The privately owned oil painting Composition with Color Planes 4 (1917) by Piet Mondrian (1872–1944) has been the subject of ongoing investigation L. E. Raven ( ) Conservation Department, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Conservation & Restoration, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: L.Raven@Rijksmuseum.nl M. Bisschoff Independent paintings conservator, Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: madeleinebisschoff@gmail.com M. Leeuwestein Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, The Netherlands e-mail: MargjeLeeuwestein@Krollermuller.nl M. Geldof Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE), Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: M.Geldof@CultureelErfgoed.nl J. J. Hermans Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: j.j.hermans@uva.nl M. Stols-Witlox Conservation & Restoration, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: M.J.N.Stols-Witlox@uva.nl K. Keune Conservation Department, Rijksmuseum, ...

This paper discusses a particular phenomenon observed in some paintings by Pierre Soulages where the paint layer is separating from the ground layer. As revealed by a survey, severe delamination between the ground and paint layers is often observed in paintings by Soulages dated to 1959. This problem appears to be due to drying defects resulting from the artist's choice of materials for both ground and paint, but it also seems to be related to the supplier of the ground, Lefebvre-Foinet. Analyses revealed the presence of lead carboxylates in the ground of paintings with delamination, with an unexpected needle-like shape.

Conservation of Easel Paintings Conservation of Easel Paintings, Second Edition provides a much-anticipated update to the previous edition, which has come to be known internationally as an invaluable and comprehensive text on the history, philosophy and methods of the treatment of easel paintings. Comprising 49 chapters written by more than 90 respected authors from around the world, this volume offers the necessary background knowledge in technical art history, artists’ materials, and scientific methods of examination and documentation. Later sections of the book provide information about the varying approaches and methods for treatment and issues of preventive conservation, as well as valuable reflections on storage, shipping, and exhibition. Including exciting developments that have taken place since the last edition was published, the book also covers new techniques of examination, especially MacroXRF scanning and Reflectance Transmission Imagery. Drawing on research presented at recent professional conferences, information about innovative methods for cleaning modern and contemporary paintings and insights into modern oil paints is also included. Incorporating the latest regulations and understanding of health and safety practices and integrating theory with practice throughout, Conservation of Easel Paintings, Second Edition will continue to be an indispensable reference for practising conservators. It will also be an essential resource for students taking conservation courses around the world. Joyce Hill Stoner is Rosenberg Professor in the Art Conservation Department at the University of Delaware/Winterthur Museum, where she has taught paintings conservation since 1976. She was awarded the American Institute for Conservation’s Lifetime Achievement award in 2003 and the CAA/Heritage Preservation Award for Distinction in Scholarship and Conservation in 2011. Rebecca Rushfield is a New York City-based conservation consultant with an interest in the history and literature of the field. She is active in the work of the American Institute for Conservation and the ICOM Committee for Conservation, and received the Gettens Award for outstanding service to the AIC. Routledge Series in Conservation and Museology Titles include: Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation Agnes Timar-Balazsy and Dinah Eastop Conservation of Furniture Shayne Rivers and Nick Umney The History of Gauged Brickwork Conservation, Repair and Modern Application Gerard Lynch A Practical Guide to Costume Mounting Lara Flecker Conservation of Easel Paintings, Second Edition Edited by Joyce Hill Stoner and Rebecca Rushfield For more information on this series, visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge-Series-in-Conservation-andMuseology/book-series/CONS Conservation of Easel Paintings Second Edition Edited by Joyce Hill Stoner and Rebecca Rushfield Second edition published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, Joyce Hill Stoner and Rebecca Rushfield; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Joyce Hill Stoner and Rebecca Rushfield to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Routledge 2012 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Stoner, Joyce Hill, editor. | Rushfield, Rebecca Anne, editor. Title: Conversation of easel paintings / edited by Joyce Hill Stoner and Rebecca Rushfield. Identifiers: LCCN 2020015597 (print) | LCCN 2020015598 (ebook Subjects: LCSH: Painting–Conservation and restoration. Classification: LCC ND1640.C58 2021 (print) | LCC ND1640 (ebook) | DDC 751.6/2–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020015597 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020015598 ISBN: 978-0-367-02379-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-39991-6 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Newgen Publishing UK Contents List of figures List of tables Contributors Foreword by David Bomford Acknowledgements by the editors x xxii xxiv xxxiii xxxiv PART I Technical art history, examination, documentation, and scientific analysis 1 2 3 Art technological source research: documentary sources on European painting to the twentieth century, with Appendices I–VII Jilleen Nadolny, Mark Clarke, Erma Hermens, Ann Massing, and Leslie Carlyle 1 3 Exploring the grammar of oil paint through the use of historically accurate reconstructions Leslie Carlyle 31 Collecting and archiving information from living artists for the conservation of contemporary art Ysbrand Hummelen and Tatja Scholte, with an appendix of additional archival sources 38 A history of Western easel painting materials from the early Renaissance to 2020 4 History and use of panels or other rigid supports for easel paintings Edited by Jørgen Wadum and Noëlle Streeton 49 5 History of fabric supports Christina Young, with a section on canvas stencils by Alexander W. Katlan 117 6 Stretchers, tensioning, and attachments Barbara A. Buckley 148 v Contents 7 Grounds, 1400–1900 Maartje Stols-Witlox Including: Grounds in the twentieth century and beyond Bronwyn Ormsby and Mark Gottsegen 163 8 Pigments in Western easel painting Nicholas Eastaugh, Jilleen Nadolny, and Sarah Lowengard Including: Binding media Erma Hermens and Joyce Townsend 192 9 Ageing and deterioration of traditional oil and tempera paints Annelies van Loon, Petria Noble, and Aviva Burnstock 216 10 Modern paints 10.1: Modern synthetic polymer paints Tom Learner 10.2: Modern oil paints Klaas Jan van den Berg, Judith Lee, and Bronwyn Ormsby 244 11 A brief survey of historical varnishes Alan Phenix and Joyce Townsend 262 12 Varnishing of acrylic paintings by artists Mark Golden 274 Techniques of examination and documentation used by the conservator and conservation scientist 13 Written documentation for paintings conservation Clare Finn 281 14 Image documentation for paintings conservation David Saunders and Loa Ludvigsen 287 15 Notes on the history of conservation documentation: examples from the UK and USA Morwenna Blewett 291 16 The classification of craquelure patterns Spike Bucklow 295 17 The technical examination and documentation of easel paintings Rhona MacBeth and Caitlin Breare 302 vi Contents 18 Optical microscopy Nicholas Eastaugh and Valentine Walsh 322 19 Identification of textile fibres found in common painting supports Debora D. Mayer 335 20 Cross-section microscopy analysis and fluorescent staining Richard C. Wolbers, Susan L. Buck, and Peggy Olley 344 21 A history of early scientific examination and analysis of painting materials ca. 1780 to the mid-twentieth century Jilleen Nadolny 22 Research into and analysis of the materials of easel paintings Joyce Townsend, Katrien Keune, and Jaap Boon 354 359 PART II Methods and approaches for the treatment and care of easel paintings 385 Structural conservation of easel paintings 23 Consolidation of flaking paint and ground Michael von der Goltz, Ina Birkenbeul, Isabel Horovitz, Morwenna Blewett, and Irina Dolgikh 24 Tear mending and other structural treatments of canvas paintings, before or instead of lining Winfried Heiber, Carolyn Tomkiewicz, Mikkel Scharff, and Rustin Levenson 389 406 25 Lining easel paintings Stephen Hackney, Joan Reifsnyder, Mireille te Marvelde, and Mikkel Scharff 440 26 The structural conservation of paintings on wooden panel supports Paul Ackroyd 478 The cleaning of easel paintings 27 Picture cleaning: positivism and metaphysics David Bomford 28 Research on the Pettenkofer method and the historical understanding of paint film swelling and interaction Sibylle Schmitt 507 518 vii Contents 29 Considerations on removing or retaining overpainted additions and alterations Michael von der Goltz and Joyce Hill Stoner 523 30 Aqueous methods for the cleaning of paintings Richard Wolbers and Christopher Stavroudis, with revisions and additions by Matthew Cushman 526 31 Removal of varnish: organic solvents as cleaning agents Alan Phenix and Richard C.Wolbers, updated by Joyce Townsend, Stefan Zumbühl, and Angelica Bartoletti with Judith Lee and Bronwyn Ormsby 549 32 Case study in the use of lasers to remove overpaint from Ad Reinhardt’s Black Painting, 1960–66 Lena Stringari 33 Cleaning concerns for acrylic emulsion paints Bronwyn Ormsby and Tom Learner 574 583 Compensation: filling, retouching/inpainting, varnishing (or not) 34 History of visual compensation for paintings Jilleen Nadolny 593 35 Filling Laura Fuster-López 604 36 The imitative retouching of easel paintings Shawn Digney-Peer, Karen Thomas, Roy Perry, Joyce Townsend, and Stephen Gritt 626 37 Varnishing as part of the conservation treatment of easel paintings Michael von der Goltz, Robert G. Proctor, Jr, Jill Whitten, Lance Mayer, and Gay Myers, with Ann Hoenigswald and Michael Swicklik 654 PART III Preventive conservation, health and safety, outreach, and professional organisations 677 38 Travelling exhibitions and transporting paintings Barbara A. Ramsay 679 39 Storage of easel paintings Tom Dixon 691 viii Contents 40 The lighting of easel paintings Jim Druzik and Stefan Michalski 697 41 Understanding the deterioration of paintings by microorganisms and insects Karin Petersen and Jens Klocke 710 42 The sustainable conservation management of exhibitions Jeremy Hutchings 731 43 Emergency preparedness and recovery Rustin Levenson 740 44 Framing, glazing, backing, and hanging of paintings on canvas Tom Dixon 748 45 Framing and microclimate enclosures for panel paintings Ian McClure 754 46 Health and safety concerns in the paintings conservation studio Monona Rossol, Mary McGinn, and Joyce H. Townsend 761 47 International public outreach projects Joyce Hill Stoner 777 48 Recommending materials to artists Brian Baade and Kristin deGhetaldi 782 49 Conservation organisations and professional standards Rebecca Rushfield 786 Bibliography edited by Rebecca Rushfield Index 792 891 ix Figures 2.1a 2.1b 2.2 HART Project,Van Gogh Grounds: fluid glue size HART Project,Van Gogh Grounds: gelled glue size Cross-section of stained* HART ground samples over linen canvas prepared without size (a) with gelled size (b) and with fluid size (c) over linen canvas 2.3 Ground sample cross-section from the oil painting, Sinfonía Heroica by Simão César Dórdio Gomes (1948) after staining and photographing 3.1 Barnett Newman, Cathedra at the Betty Parsons Gallery in New York (and two beholders) 4.1a Cross-section of Pinus sylvestris (pine) 4.1b Cross-section of Quercus robur (oak) 4.1c Cross-section of Fagus sylvatica (beech) 4.1d Cross-section of Millettia laurentii – wenge 4.2 Overlapping system of curves for the establishment of master chronologies backward from the twentieth century to the ninth century 4.3 Cross-dating – two curves from the same tree – from a painting by Joos van Cleve 4.4 Distribution of sapwood rings in Eastern Europe 4.5 Dendrochronological analyses of some paintings by Bosch and follower; use of the same colour indicates wood from the same tree 4.6 Boards from the same tree in paintings from Lievens and Rembrandt 4.7 Boards from the same tree in Cranach paintings 4.8 Dating of fir wood paintings 4.9 Male portrait, Hawara. Approx. ad 25–75. Inv. no. Æ.I.N. 1425, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 4.10 Male portrait, Er–rubayet. Inv. no. AE.I.N. 684, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 4.11a and b Wooden icon supports in raking light 4.12 Fifteenth-century icon (Angelos) with a central untreated board 4.13a and b The Three Holy Children, Christ Enthroned, seventh century 4.14 Types of icon battens (a, b, c: Byzantine and post-Byzantine icons; d, e, f: Russian icons) 4.15 Madonna della Clemenza, sixth or seventh century, encaustic on panel, 164 cm × 116 cm, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome x 32 32 33 33 40 50 51 51 51 56 56 58 60 60 61 62 63 64 67 68 68 69 71 Figures 4.16a and b Giotto di Bondone: (a) Verification of the Stigmata; (b) Institution of the Crib at Greccio, ca. 1296, fresco, Upper Basilica, Assisi 4.17a and b Duccio di Buoninsegna, Madonna Rucellai, 1285, tempera and oil on panel, Uffizi Gallery, Florence 4.18 Guido da Siena, Madonna and Child with Saints, ca. 1270, tempera on panel, Pinacoteca, Siena 4.19a and b Duccio di Buoninsegna, Madonna and Child with Saints, ca. 1311–18, tempera on panel, Pinacoteca, Siena 4.20 Sano di Pietro, Gesuati Altarpiece, signed and dated 1444, tempera on panel, Pinacoteca, Siena 4.21 Donnino and Agnolo di Domenico del Mazziere, Madonna and Child Enthroned between Angels and Saints Bartholomew and John the Evangelist; Paliotto: Bernardo and Stefano Rosselli, Ubertini–Baldelli Chapel, 1480s, left transept, Santo Spirito, Florence 4.22 Taddeo Gaddi, Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints, ca. 1340, Metropolitan Museum of Art 4.23 Towns and ports of the Hanseatic League, ca. 1150–1500 4.24 Vistula River basin with the main sources of wood 4.25 Wood owner or traders’ mark on an oak plank, from ca. 1400. Excavated from the ‘Copper Wreck’; Polish Maritime Museum, Gdansk 4.26 Imported timber in stacks on the quay of Antwerp. Woodcut inscribed ANTVERPIA MERCATORUM EMPORIUM, 1515 4.27 Verso of a panel (S/15) from the Winter Room, Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen 4.28 The South Wall in the Winter Room (1615–20), Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen, Denmark 4.29 The Antwerp Brand (castle + two hands) showing brand no. 4, in use from 1619 to 1638 4.30 Bartholomeus Spranger, Allegory of the Emperor Rudolf II, 1592, Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna 4.31 Isabella Francken, Christ on the Road to Calvary, oil on copper, with the house mark of Peeter Stas on the verso; the Antwerp hand below and the date: ANNO 1604 4.32a The Agony in the Garden, William Blake 4.32b Detail of paint delamination in foreground, The Agony in the Garden 4.33 Lucian Freud (b. 1922). HMP86641 Still Life with a Sea Urchin, 1949 (oil on copper). Harris Museum and Art Gallery, Preston, Lancashire 4.34 Detail of Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn, Old Woman Praying (known as ‘Rembrandt’s Mother Praying’), ca. 1629/30, oil on copper, Residenzgalerie Salzburg 4.35 Paint delaminating from the priming and the glass support, from William Nicholson, Loggia with Figures, ca. 1913, viewed from the recto 4.36 F.W. Devoe & Co. Academy Board label 5.1 Weaving loom showing warp yarns running along the length of the fabric with transverse weft yarns at right angles 75 76 77 79 81 82 83 86 86 87 88 91 92 95 100 101 102 102 104 105 112 113 121 xi Figures 5.2 5.3 Cotton duck woven as (a) plain weave, (b) twill weave, (c) herringbone weave Detail of Dieric Bouts (image showing weave), Resurrection, ca. 1455, Norton Simon Foundation 5.4 Edward Dechaux stencil mark 5.5a Cézanne, Card Players, Courtauld Institute of Art 5.5b Detail of Cezanne’s Card Players, Courtauld Institute of Art 5.6 Detail of Van Gogh, Self Portrait as a Painter, December 1887–February 1888, oil on canvas,Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam 5.7 Walter Sickert, Off to the Pub, Tate 5.8 Richard Smith, Piano, 1963, Tate 6.1 Slot mortise-and-tenon joint with keys 6.2 Shattuck cast of keys for corners and cross bars with some still attached to their sprues 6.3 Full mitred slot mortise-and-tenon joint with keys 6.4 John Frederick Peto, Lincoln and the Pfleger Stretcher, 1898. Oil on canvas, New Britain Museum of American Art 6.5a Panel stretcher with keys (obverse) 6.5b Panel stretcher with keys (reverse) 6.6 Aert de Gelder, Self-Portrait as Zeuxis. 1685, Städel Museum, Frankfurt am Main 6.7 ICA Spring Stretcher with spring corner mechanism 6.8 Expansion-bolt stretcher 6.9 Nineteenth-century folding stretcher 6.10 Closed bridle joint with mitred corner and keys 7.1a and b Cross-section of Hans Memling, Portrait of man, oil on panel, Mauritshuis, The Hague 7.2a and b Cross-section of Cornelis Ketel, The Company of Captain Dirck Jacobsz. Rosecrans and Lieutenant Pauw, Amsterdam, 1588, oil on canvas, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 7.3 Detail of Michael Sweerts, Portrait of Joseph Deutz, ca. 1648–9, oil on canvas. Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 7.4a and b Cross-section of Jan Anthonisz van Ravesteyn (and studio), Portrait of an Officer, 1616, oil on canvas, Mauritshuis, The Hague 7.5a and b Cross-section of Paulus Moreelse, The Company of Captain Jacob Hoynck and Lieutenant Nanning Cloeck, 1616, oil on canvas, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 7.6 Detail of Claude Monet, Church at Vétheuil, 1885, Southampton City Art Gallery 7.7 Cross-section of Vincent van Gogh, Garden of Daubigny, 1890,Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam 7.8a Vincent van Gogh, Garden of Daubigny, 1890,Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam 7.8b A virtual reconstruction of the Garden of Daubigny showing an approximation of the original effect of the pink ground 7.9 Detail, Luke Fildes, The Doctor, exhibited 1891, Tate Gallery London 7.10a and b Cross-section of Luke Fildes, The Doctor, exhibited 1891, Tate Gallery, London xii 121 127 135 139 140 141 143 145 149 151 152 152 153 153 155 157 158 159 160 167 171 172 174 176 179 181 182 182 185 185 Figures 7.11 8.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 12.1 12.2 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 17.1 17.2 17.3 French’s Artist Board Table of selected pigment use Karel Appel, l’Homme, 1953, oil on canvas, Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam Lead soap aggregate formation in Johannes Vermeer, View of Delft, ca. 1660–61, oil on canvas, Mauritshuis, The Hague Zinc soap aggregate formation in Philip de László, Walmer Wood, ca. 1920, oil sketch on canvas, private collection, England Diagram showing the various stages of lead soap aggregate formation Diagram illustrating the darkening effect of the gradual dissolution and saponification of lead white in a surface paint layer that is applied over a dark underpaint or panel Selective darkening associated with the wood grain in Aert van der Neer, River Landscape, ca. 1650, oil on oak panel, Mauritshuis, The Hague Whitish surface deposits cover most of the dark passages in Rembrandt, Homer, 1663, oil on canvas, Mauritshuis, The Hague Darkening of oil paint containing azurite in Hans Holbein the Younger, Portrait of Robert Cheseman, 1533, oil on oak panel, Mauritshuis, The Hague Fading of red lake pigment in Bernardo Daddi, Polyptych with the Crucifixion (central panel), 1348, tempera and gold leaf on panel, Courtauld Gallery, London Blackening of vermilion in Pieter de Grebber, Triumphal Procession with Sacrificial Bull, 1650, oil on canvas, Oranjezaal Royal Palace Huis ten Bosch, The Hague Browning and powdering on surface of Herbert Cecil Drane, Forest, 1914, private collection, England The varieties of modern paint Hans Namuth, Jackson Pollock, 1950, Center for Creative Photography Morris Louis, Saraband, 1959, Guggenheim Liquitex Artist Materials, POB 1396, Piscataway, NJ 08855–1396, USA Bridget Riley, Movement in Squares, 1961, PVA emulsion on canvas, Arts Council Collection, UK Typical ageing phenomena of modern oil paints Pigment pickup during surface cleaning tests of certain water-sensitive colours on Karel Appel’s l’Homme (1953) Oil paint model adapted from van den Berg et al. (1999) Brush varnishing an acrylic painting Spray varnishing an acrylic painting Typical fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Italian panel, grain vertical Typical sixteenth-century Flemish panel, grain vertical Typical seventeenth-century Dutch canvas, warp horizontal Typical eighteenth-century French canvas, warp horizontal Diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum Fitz Henry Lane, View of Coffin’s Beach, 1862, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Peter Paul Rubens, Sacrifice of the Old Covenant, oil on panel, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 186 201 221 224 225 226 227 228 229 231 234 235 236 245 246 248 250 253 255 257 259 276 277 299 299 300 300 303 303 304 xiii Figures Master of the Magdalene Legend (attr.), The Rest on the Flight to Egypt Jan Massys, Judith with the Head of Holofernes, 1543, oil on panel, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 17.6 Philip Leslie Hale, Landscape, ca. 1890, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 17.7 Master of the Holy Kinship, Saint Matthais and Saint Matthew, oil on panel, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 17.8 Schematic showing the normal set-up for the X-radiography of art objects 17.9 Jacopo Tintoretto and workshop, The Nativity, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 17.10 Vincent Van Gogh, Ravine, oil on canvas, 28¾˝ x 36⅛˝ 17.11 Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400–64), St Luke Drawing the Virgin, oil and tempera on panel, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 17.12 Abandoned self-portrait by Arthur Streeton, private collection 18.1 Stereoscopic trinocular microscope, Meiji EMZ-TR with a c-mount on the third ocular manufactured by Meiji to fit an Olympus Camedia C-4040 digital camera 18.2 Magnified surface detail showing artist’s techniques and materials, aged varnish craquelure, and previous restorations 18.3 A research-grade polarised light microscope (Leica DMRX) 18.4 A well-dispersed sample of copper (II) acetate type F, mounted in Cargille MeltMount of RI 1.662 19.1 Composite photomicrograph of cotton fibres 19.2 Composite photomicrograph of bast fibres 19.3 Composite photomicrograph of silk fibres 20.1 Cross-section sample from Paolo Caliari, called Veronese, The Virgin and Child with Angels Appearing to Saints Anthony Abbot and Paul, the Hermit, ca. 1562, Chrysler Museum, Norfolk,VA 20.2 In the cross-section from the blue sky, from Paolo Caliari, called Veronese, The Virgin and Child with Angels Appearing to Saints Anthony Abbot and Paul, the Hermit, ca. 1562, Chrysler Museum, Norfolk,VA 20.3 This sample from the green robe, from Paolo Caliari, called Veronese, The Virgin and Child with Angels Appearing to Saints Anthony Abbot and Paul, the Hermit, ca. 1562, Chrysler Museum, Norfolk,VA 20.4 This sample from a green leaf, from Paolo Caliari, called Veronese, The Virgin and Child with Angels Appearing to Saints Anthony Abbot and Paul, the Hermit, ca. 1562, Chrysler Museum, Norfolk,VA 22.1 Cross-section of a late nineteenth-century lead white priming on canvas used by F.E. Church (1826–1900) 22.2a and b Paint sample from a white tile, from Johannes Vermeer, The Art of Painting, ca. 1667–68, Kunsthistorische Museum,Vienna 22.3 Cross-section from Jacob Jordaens, Ferry Boat from Antwerp, ca. 1623, Statens Museum Copenhagen 17.4 17.5 xiv 305 307 308 311 313 315 316 317 319 323 327 330 331 339 339 341 352 352 352 353 364 367 369 Figures Sample of degrading vermilion paint, from P.P. Rubens, Portrait of a Lady, ca. 1625 23.1a and b Detail of Giambattista Tiepolo, Scipio Africanus Freeing Massiva, 1719–21, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore 23.2 The Mitka apparatus used on the Tiepolo painting 23.3 After distilled water was brushed on the area of the Tiepolo to be consolidated, blotter and Mylar were applied 23.4 Vacuum device engaged on the Tiepolo 23.5 Vacuum tweezer equipment for use in relocating paint flakes during consolidation 23.6 The end of the attachment (which resembles a small hat) has a ca. 1 mm opening 23.7 The vacuum tweezer now holds a flake (ca. 3 mm), ready to be placed back on to the surface of the painting 23.8 The flake is positioned on the painting 23.9 A glass-topped table with mirror below constructed so that the conservator can apply the consolidant from the reverse but watch the effect of the consolidant on the recto when consolidating reverse-glass paintings 23.10 Restoration of The Resurrection, with Scenes from the Life of Christ, nineteenth century, Russian 23.11 Restoration of The Resurrection, with Scenes from the Life of Christ, nineteenth century, Russian 23.12 Restoration of The Resurrection, with Scenes from the Life of Christ, nineteenth century, Russian 24.1 Application of the sturgeon glue-wheat starch paste mixture on to both ends of the individually torn fibres 24.2 Damaged fabric before treatment 24.3 After thread-by-thread tear repair, including supplementing a missing thread 24.4 Schematic illustration of the ‘Trecker’ 24.5 Mounting the ‘Trecker’ to the stretcher and decorative frame 24.6 Attaching the textile strips, perpendicular to the tear direction 24.7 Attaching the textile strips, parallel to the tear direction 24.8 Production of the textile strips: (a) perpendicular to the tear direction; (b) parallel to the tear direction 24.9 In order to compensate for the expansion of the fabric, the tear edges should be brought even closer together than before the damage, but only if the paint layer does not extend to the edges of the tear 24.10 Tear in a nineteenth-century painting 24.11 Stretched, unprimed canvas, shrunken 24.12 The same as Figure 24.11 but expanded; horizontal threads are extended; vertical threads are more crimped 24.13 Gaping tear in a portrait 24.14 The same portrait, mended, filled, and inpainted 22.4 376 395 395 395 396 399 399 400 400 402 403 404 404 408 409 409 410 410 411 411 412 413 414 415 415 416 416 xv Figures 24.15 24.16a 24.16b 24.17a 24.17b 24.18a 24.18b 24.19 24.20 24.21 24.22a 24.22b 24.23a 24.23b 24.24a 24.24b 24.25 25.1 25.2a 25.2b 25.3 25.4a 25.4b 25.4c 25.5 25.6 25.7a 25.7b 25.8 25.9 xvi After the repair of an ‘L-shaped’ tear, development of folds at the corner and at both ends of the tear A low-pressure suction frame The low-pressure suction frame in position on top of a hot-table A low-pressure suction table A detail of the corner of the low-pressure suction table A mini suction table The treatment unit of the mini low-pressure suction table Local consolidation of a tear in a painting Spraying an aqueous consolidant on to the reverse of a painting A tailor-designed iron can be used for pie-crust strip linings (in this case strips of Hollytex attached with BEVA 371 adhesive) Panel-back stretcher recto, from Albert Bierstadt, Mt. St Helens Panel-back stretcher verso, from Albert Bierstadt, Mt. St. Helens A stretcher-bar or ‘cami’ lining of sail cloth being stapled in place A stretcher-bar or ‘cami’ lining of sail cloth, in place A pillow-padded backing board made of polyester batting enclosed in a polyester-cotton blend fabric and adhered to corrugated archival blue board is lowered to nest inside the stretcher An insert-lining of Ethafoam enclosed in a polyester-cotton fabric is lowered into place A ‘BEVA band-aid’ applied over a mended tear with concentric rings of adhesive applied in order to avoid telegraphing the shape of the mend to the front of the painting A schematic diagram of the layers of a ‘Florentine’ glue-paste lining Detail of a toothed spatula with wide and deep-cut teeth for use on heavier, open-weave canvases A version of a fine-toothed spatula. The teeth are shallow and close together to limit the amount of thick glue-paste on a tightly woven canvas support A heavy wooden roller used in some traditional glue-paste techniques Reverse of a painting wax-resin lined by W.A. Hopman 1876/77, Mauritshuis, showing the lack of superfluous wax-resin adhesive Detail of Hopman’s twill weave lining canvas, Mauritshuis Same detail of Hopman’s twill weave lining canvas, in raking light, Mauritshuis Detail of the reverse of a painting wax lined in 1965, in raking light, Mauritshuis A vacuum hot-table A low-pressure suction table A low-pressure suction table during a glue-paste lining A lamination fabric is being prepared for a lamination (nap-bond lining) of a painting without an interleaf A hot-table is being prepared for a lamination of a painting with a fixed interleaf 417 422 422 424 424 425 425 429 431 434 435 435 436 437 438 438 439 445 446 447 448 452 452 453 455 465 466 470 473 474 Figures 25.10 A previously prepared piece of loose interleaf covered with acrylic dispersion adhesive is being positioned on the lamination fabric, a polyester weave, placed on a release layer of Melinex and cushioning filter paper 25.11 A schematic cross-section through a vacuum hot-table prepared for a lamination with a loose interleaf 26.1 Rectilinear crack patterns in an early sixteenth-century Italian panel painting on poplar 26.2 The reverse of a thinned, fifteenth-century poplar panel 26.3 An early seventeenth-century Flemish painting on oak panel that was thinned in the nineteenth century leaving 3–4 mm of the original wood 26.4 Open channels at the reverse of a sixteenth-century Italian panel made to inset dovetailed battens across the grain 26.5 A fixed cradle or lattice support attached to a thinned, fifteenth-century Italian painting 26.6 A 1930s mahogany cradle support attached to a thinned, early seventeenthcentury oak panel 26.7 A balsa backing process using two layers of balsa planks adhered with a molten wax-resin mortar 26.8 A panel tray auxiliary support 26.9 A panel tray auxiliary support 26.10a A flexible auxiliary support 26.10b Detail of the flexible auxiliary support showing the back-springs and vertical retaining bar attached to a display frame 26.11 A clamping table used to re-join separated joins and splits in wooden panels 26.12 Inset butterfly buttons used to reinforce the reverse of joins and splits in the original wood 26.13 Woodworm damage in a fourteenth-century poplar panel 27.1 Jan den Compe, Portrait of Jan van Dijk, 1754, Amsterdams Historisch Museum, Museum Willet-Holthuysen 28.1 Unsigned sketches attached to a file by Hefner von Alteneck 1865 with a comment describing Pettenkofer’s idea 30.1 A nineteenth-century landscape by American artist Maurice Braun 30.2 Portrait of Anne Ross Hopkins (1801) by Jacob Eichholtz 30.3 A nineteenth-century Venetian canal scene (artist unknown) 30.4 Emulsion formulation for the treatment of Winter Scene (1940), by Christine Martin 31.1 Barn scene by Cornelius van Leemputten, showing in-progress cleaning, layer by layer 31.2 Estimated solubility of fresh dammar 31.3 Estimated solubility of fresh mastic 31.4 Estimated change in the solubility of mastic as a function of light ageing 31.5 Change in removability of linseed oil/colophony varnish due to accelerated light ageing, xenon arc light exposure cabinet, ultraviolet and window-glass filters, 600 and 1200 hours 475 476 480 481 484 486 487 488 490 492 492 493 493 496 500 500 510 521 538 539 541 546 550 554 554 556 558 xvii Figures 31.6 31.7 Comparison of peak swelling solvents for drying oils, and that of aged mastic Relative oil swelling ability of various solvents (Phenix, 2002a and b) compared with solubility region of aged mastic 31.8 Keck mixtures 1–4 (gray dots) compared to the solubility of aged mastic 31.9 Scheme for solubility testing for use in cleaning of oil paints proposed by Cremonesi (2000) and Wolbers (2004) 32.1 Ad Reinhardt in his studio, New York, July 1966 32.2 Ad Reinhardt, Black Painting, 1960–66, oil on canvas, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York 32.3 Cross-sections taken from the nine squares of Reinhardt’s Black Painting (1960–66), oil on canvas, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York 32.4 Schematic drawing of the workstation used during the experimental treatment of Reinhardt’s Black Painting, 1960–66, at IESL-FORTH in Crete 32.5 Laser cleaning of Reinhardt’s Black Painting, 1960–66, at Art Innovation, Oldenzaal, the Netherlands 33.1 Swab rolling acrylic emulsion paint films to test the effects of commonly employed surface cleaning treatments 33.2 Back-scattered electron scanning electron microscope (BSE-SEM) images of Golden titanium white paint-free films (no substrate); 380x 34.1 Giulio Romano, Madonna and Child with Saints (the ‘Fugger Altarpiece’), 1521–22, Church of S. Maria dell’Anima, Rome, before the conservation work undertaken in 2007 34.2 (a) Example of a damaged area (outlined in chalk) with retouching removed, showing actual condition; (b) detail of stippled retouching applied by the restorer Pietro Palmaroli in 1819 to the ‘Fugger Altarpiece’ 35.1 Large hole with accompanying losses of paint, ground, and support, from Madonna and Child, oil on canvas, ca. 1790–1820 35.2 Extensive losses of paint and ground but not support. Madonna, oil on canvas, ca. 1580–1600 35.3 St Sebastian, oil on canvas, ca. 1680–90 35.4 Fragment of a Flemish painting, oil on canvas, ca. 1640–80 35.5 Some of the ready-mixed commercially available filling materials 35.6a and b (detail) Torero, acrylic on canvas, ca. 1960 35.7 Preparation of a synthetic canvas insert 35.8 Application of filling material with a spatula 35.9 Imprinting the still-wet fill with a piece of thick canvas (fabric texture will be in reverse) 35.10 Open-weave inserts with single polyester threads and woven fibreglass fabric 35.11 Textured metal tacking iron tips 35.12 Bi-component (base and catalyst) RTV silicone rubber mould obtained from different fabrics 36.1 Hans Memling, The Annunciation, 1465–75, oil on wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art, during treatment xviii 560 561 564 564 575 576 577 580 580 584 588 598 599 606 607 608 609 612 613 614 614 615 615 619 621 627 Figures 36.2 (a) After cleaning and (b) after treatment. North Netherlandish painter, Countess of Egmond (Magdalena van Werdenburg, 1464–1538), ca. 1510, oil on wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.3 (a) Before treatment and (b) after treatment. Hans Holbein the Younger, Derek Berck, 1536, oil on canvas, transferred from wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.4 (a) After filling (b) after treatment. Piet Mondrian, Windmill with Summerhouse II, ca. 1906, oil on paper mounted on cardboard, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.5 (a) After filling (b) after treatment. Lucas Cranach the Elder, Judith with the Head of Holofernes, ca. 1530, oil on wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.6 (a) After cleaning (b) after treatment. Filippino Lippi, Madonna and Child, ca. 1485, tempera, oil, and gold on wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.7 (a) Before treatment (b) after treatment. Robert Motherwell, The Homely Protestant, 1948, oil and tempera on composition board, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.8 (a) Before treatment (b) after treatment. Mark Rothko, No. 16, 1960, mixed media (oil, animal glue, and egg) on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.9 (a) Before treatment (b) after treatment. Joan Miró, Circus Horse, 1927, animal glue on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.10 A day-to-day working palette is likely to have a limited array of pigments or paints, so it is useful to stock a large supply of materials to augment the basic palette 36.11 (a) After cleaning (b) after treatment. Nicolaes Berchem, Rest, 1644, oil on wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art 36.12 An example of supplies set up for retouching 36.13a–e Stages in the reconstruction of Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Younger, A Vase of Flowers with a Monkey, ca. 1635, oil on canvas, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, UK 36.14 A partial view of the main paintings conservation studio at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 37.1a and b A varnish is brushed on to a painting horizontally and then reduced with a small piece of silk fabric 37.2 A varnish is brushed on to a painting vertically 37.3 A varnish is sprayed on to a painting in an easel in a spray booth 37.4 Detail of Parkhurst, 1898 37.5 Inscription by Willard Metcalf (1858–1925) on the reverse of his painting Benediction, 1920, private collection 38.1 Soft packing of a painting can be done by wrapping the painting first in polyethylene sheeting (taped for a good seal) followed by bubble-wrap (also taped) 38.2 A shadow box can be constructed of corrugated cardboard that lies below the painting and is folded up around the edges (taped at the corners) 38.3 Unframed or fragile painting can be installed in a travel frame using Oz clips 628 628 629 630 631 633 633 634 636 639 641 648 652 656 657 658 674 674 683 684 685 xix Figures 38.4 38.5 39.1 40.1 40.2 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.6 41.7 41.8 41.9 41.10 41.11 41.12 41.13 41.14 41.15 41.16 41.17 41.18 41.19 41.20 41.21 41.22 43.1 43.2 44.1 44.2 45.1 45.2 45.3 xx Large paintings can sometimes be safely rolled on to a wide-diameter Sonotube for travel or short-term storage Movement of oversize paintings may necessitate the use of a folding stretcher constructed in two parts that are held together at centre verso by metal plates when assembled Aboriginal bark painting storage box Blackbody sources Wavelengths Fungal infestation of yellow paint on the Kunststätte Bossard SEM detail of Figure 41.1 Fungi growing mainly in paint cracks Fungi growing on insect debris SEM detail, fungal growth within the paint layer SEM detail, fungal growth beneath the paint layer Larva of a booklouse (order: Psocoptera) Larva of the common furniture beetle Anobium punctatum Imago of the common furniture beetle Larva of the house longhorn beetle, Hylotrupes bajulus Female (left) and male (right) imago of the house longhorn beetle, Hylotrupes bajulus Death watch beetle, Xestobium rufovillosum Ptilinus pectinicornis Brown powder post beetle, Lyctus brunneus Steely blue beetle, Korynetes caeruleus Heteroptera directly after discovery on an art work Heteroptera after two weeks at 90–100 per cent RH SEM detail, insect excrement infested by fungi Insect scales with fungal infestation SEM detail, empty insect egg with fungal infestation Exuvia from a mite surrounded by fungal hyphae Grazing marks by insects on mycelium The Emergency Response Salvage Wheel in English. Courtesy of the American Institute for Conservation, Washington, DC. The Emergency Response Salvage Wheel in Arabic. Courtesy of the American Institute for Conservation, Washington, DC. Reversible systems of attachment for displaying paintings, National Gallery of Victoria Reverse of glazed and backed painting with photocopied exhibition and other appropriate labels. Courtesy of National Gallery of Victoria Schematic diagram illustrating the framing of a rigid support such as a plywood panel or a heavily cradled panel Schematic framing of a panel painting with horizontal grain direction Ambrosius Franken I, Judgement of Zaleucus, 1606, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England. Detail of the roller-bearing system designed and constructed by Ray Marchant 686 687 695 699 699 714 715 716 716 717 717 718 718 719 719 719 721 721 721 722 726 726 727 727 728 728 729 742 743 750 750 755 756 757 Figures 45.4 45.5 46.1 46.2 47.1 48.1 49.1 Schematic diagram indicating points of least deflection in a panel responding to changes in relative humidity, where compressible fixings will cause least stress Ambrosius Franken I, Judgement of Zaleucus, 1606, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England. The reverse showing supporting system Example of a Safety Data Sheet, Acetone, April 2019 A fume extraction system over the cleaning solvents on a nearby cart while a conservator is removing varnish The Lunder Conservation Center. Photograph: Julie Heath. Courtesy of the Lunder Conservation Center, Smithsonian American Art Museum. The author, in an art supply store, speaking about a paint tube label to an artist (Greg Shelnutt, chair and professor of art, University of Delaware, Department of Art & Design) The IIC international congress on Museum Climatology in London, 1967; members are assembled in front of the Albert Hall 758 759 766 776 779 783 789 xxi Tables 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 9.1 17.1 20.1 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 30.8 30.9 30.10 30.11 31.1 31.2 34.1 34.2 35.1 36.1 xxii Examples of the use of incorrect wood identifications Survey of wood identification and dendrochronological analyses of panel paintings Wood species in the workshop of Lucas Cranach Paintings of Rembrandt (1606–69) with supports of tropical timber Number of sapwood rings for some panel paintings of the seventeenth century Seasoning time for dated panel paintings of the fifteenth century Choice of woods Species of wood and frequency (*) of use according to region and period Guide to degradation in traditional oil paint organised by pigment and colour Types of infrared detector most commonly in use Reference table for commonly used fluorochrome stains Common buffers, pKas, and ranges for buffering effects Common chelators and pKf for selected metal ions pKsp values for common white pigments Common enzymes and their properties Commercial cellulosic ethers: solution properties Recommended thickeners with various surfactant types CMC grades and viscosities Gel properties of xanthan gum (Vanzan) Gel properties of various polyacrylates HLB scale Selective solvent densities Fractional solubility parameters of the various Keck mixtures Some common organic solvents A spectrum of visual compensation approaches (invasive to minimalist) List of conferences dedicated to, or with notable sessions on, visual compensation of paintings held in Western Europe and North America Texturing techniques for filling materials (Fuster, Mecklenburg et al., 2008: 129) Recommended modern pigments for matching traditional blue pigments 53 53 54 55 57 59 63 66 239 310 350 530 531 532 533 535 535 536 536 537 544 545 563 571 595 601 616 638 Tables 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 40.1 40.2 40.3 Recipes for Regalrez 1094, most commonly used with 15–25 grams of resin Recipes for MS2A, most commonly used with 10–25 grams of resin Recipes for aldehyde resin Laropal A81 How to mix a varnish Basic rules for lighting Visual changes with viewers’ age, and the consequences Sensitivity of coloured materials to light 665 666 667 668 703 704 706 xxiii Contributors Paul Ackroyd is Senior Conservator at the National Gallery, London. His research interests are in the structural conservation of easel paintings. He has been a visiting lecturer at conservation training courses in the UK, France, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands. Brian Baade is Assistant Professor in Art Conservation at the University of Delaware. He specialises in the technical art history of traditional easel painting, historically appropriate reconstructions of Old Master paintings, and contemporary art materials and techniques as the head moderator of the forum Materials Information and Technical Resources for Artists (MITRA). Angelica Bartoletti was awarded her PhD from University College London in 2017 on the application of Scanning Probe Microscopy for parchment characterisation at the nanoscale. She was previously a researcher and Conservation Scientist at Tate and is currently a postdoctoral fellow on plastic at NOVA University of Lisbon. Klaas Jan van den Berg is a senior conservation scientist focusing on modern paints. He is based at the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands and is a part-time full Professor in Conservation Science (Painted Art) at the University of Amsterdam. Ina Birkenbeul earned a diploma in conservation at the University of Hildesheim in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage, where she has served for over two decades as the head of the workshop for the conservation of paintings and polychromed wooden objects. George Bisacca is Conservator Emeritus at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, and specialises in the structural conservation of panel paintings. Co-Chair of the Getty Panel Paintings Initiative, he trained at Palazzo Pitti, Florence, and was awarded the Alfonso X ‘El Sabio’ Medal of Honor in 2000 for his work at the Prado Museum 1990–2000. Morwenna Blewett is a paintings conservator and Sackler Fellow in the History of Conservation at Worcester College and the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford. She is the author of numerous articles and book chapters on the history of conservation and the treatment and technical analysis of easel paintings. She has worked at the National Gallery, London, at the Hamilton Kerr Institute, University of Cambridge, and other institutions. David Bomford retired as Chair of Conservation and Head of European Art at the Museum of Fine Arts Houston in 2019. He has also held positions as Associate Director for Collections and Acting Director, xxiv Contributors J. Paul Getty Museum; Senior Restorer of Paintings, National Gallery, London; Secretary-General of the IIC, Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Oxford, and Trustee of the V&A, London. Jaap Boon has run JAAP Enterprise for Art Scientific Studies to assist museums and private restorers with advanced research on paintings, since 2007. Formerly a geochemist and analytical mass spectrometrist at AMOLF in Amsterdam, he masterminded and coordinated the MOLART and De Mayerne programme for Art Science and Conservation of easel paintings from 1995 to 2006. Caitlin Breare is Conservator of Paintings at the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) in Melbourne, Australia. Before joining the NGV, she was Assistant Conservator of Paintings at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, where she focused on the technical examination and treatment of 15th-century Italian paintings. Susan L. Buck is a conservator in private practice, specialising in the analysis of painted objects and architectural materials. Her PhD research involved using cross-section microscopy analysis techniques for paint archaeology of a house and outbuildings in Charleston, SC. She has lectured and taught in many countries, including Germany, Holland, England, and China. Barbara A. Buckley is Senior Director of Conservation and Chief Conservator of Paintings at the Barnes Foundation, where she has conducted research for publications on Henri Matisse and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. She was compiler of Volume 2, Stretchers and Strainers, for the AIC Paintings Specialty Group’s Painting Conservation Catalog. Spike Bucklow teaches conservation science at the Hamilton Kerr Institute, University of Cambridge. His The Alchemy of Paint was published in 2009 by Marion Boyars. His research interests are in old master and medieval artists’ materials and methods. Aviva Burnstock is Head of the Department of Conservation & Technology at the Courtauld Institute of Art, London. From 1986 to 1992 she worked in the Scientific Department of the National Gallery, London, after a year as a conservator in Australia with the Regional Galleries Association of New South Wales. Leslie Carlyle is retired Associate Professor of Paintings Conservation at the New University of Lisbon, Portugal. She authored The Artist’s Assistant: Oil Painting Instruction Manuals and Handbooks in Britain, 1800– 1900, London (2001). Her extensive research into historical artists’ materials includes the development of historically accurate reconstructions. Ciro Castelli is a restorer of panel paintings and has worked for over 40 years for the Opificio delle Pietre Dure of Florence. He has taught there since 1979. He has published on the history, construction, scientific analysis, and conservation of panel paintings in various journals. Mark Clarke is an interdisciplinary researcher in technical art history and art technological source research, focusing on medieval painters and illuminators, their materials and ‘recipe books’. Trained in conservation and conservation science, he is affiliated with the University of Amsterdam and the New University of Lisbon. Maureen Cross is a lecturer in Paintings Conservation at the Courtauld Institute of Art. She has worked at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum, and as a professional conservator at the National Museums of Liverpool, the Manchester Galleries, and the Tate. xxv Contributors Matthew Cushman is the Conservator of Paintings at Winterthur Museum, Garden & Library and an Affiliated Assistant Professor at the Winterthur/University of Delaware Program in Art Conservation, where he teaches fundamentals of paintings conservation and applied science in conservation practice. Kristin deGhetaldi is a paintings conservator and earned an MS in Art Conservation and a PhD in Preservation Studies. She co-created the websites Kress Technical Art History and Materials Information and Technical Resources for Artists. Shawn Digney-Peer is Conservator in the Paintings Conservation Department at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where he cares for nineteenth-century, modern, and contemporary paintings. Shawn’s most recent research focuses on the cleaning of paint and unprimed canvas with dry methods and the suitability of using heat to remove efflorescence from unvarnished paint films. Tom Dixon practised as a paintings conservator in the USA and then moved to Australia to teach. He eventually became Chief Conservator at the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne where he introduced preventive and integrated conservation principles. Now retired, he advocates on behalf of art in public places. Irina Dolgikh is an easel paintings conservator with a special interest in icons, currently in private prac- tice in Oxford, UK. Previously she worked at Ruth Bubb Conservation of Paintings, Banbury, UK, Art Conservation Services, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and the Walters Art Museum, also in Baltimore. James Druzik has retired as the Senior Scientist at the Getty Conservation Institute. His research interests are on the interactions of air pollution and light on sensitive museum artifacts. He is co-author with Stefan Michalski (Canadian Conservation Institute) of the CCI Technical Bulletin: LED Lighting in Museums and Galleries. Nicholas Eastaugh (PhD, 1988, paintings conservation, 1981, Courtauld Institute) is Director of Research at Art Access & Research, London, and co-founder of the Pigmentum Project, Oxford University London. He is internationally recognised as a world expert in pigments and is a co-author of the Pigment Compendium. Clare Finn, Director of Clare Finn & Company Limited specialising in the conservation of easel paintings, has over 40 years’ experience working for both public and private bodies. She has published on both art history and conservation, and is a Trustee for the UK Institute for Conservation. Laura Fuster-López is Professor at the Dept. Conservación y Restauración de Bienes Culturales of the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (Spain). Since receiving her PhD in 2006, her research has been directed towards the study of the mechanical and dimensional properties of cultural materials. Mark Golden, CEO and co-founder of Golden Artist Colors, has more than 30 years’ industry experience in the fine art world. He has been a guest lecturer at the Smithsonian Institution, the Getty Museum, and the Tate Gallery, and has co-authored several technical papers regarding the conservation of modern materials and acrylic paintings. Michael von der Goltz is a conservator, historian, art historian, and professor of conservation and restor- ation of paintings and polychrome wooden objects at the HAWK University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Hildesheim, Germany. He is on the IIC Council and is engaged in many international projects. xxvi Contributors Mark D. Gottsegen (1948–2013) was an artist who researched and wrote about art materials. He taught materials of painting and drawing for 32 years and administered AMIEN (Art Materials Information and Education Network). Stephen Gritt is the Director of Conservation at the National Gallery of Canada. He formerly worked at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and the Tate Gallery, taught at the Courtauld Institute of Art, and was Conservator for the Courtauld Galleries. Stephen Hackney has retired from Tate, London where he worked from 1972, as a practising paintings conservator and conservation scientist responsible for preventive conservation, and beginning in the 1980s headed the Tate’s scientific research into the conservation of contemporary and historic British art collections. His special interest was sealed microenvironments in museum display and storage. Winfried Heiber (1938–2009) was Professor at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts in the field of conservation and restoration of historic, modern, and contemporary paintings. With a focus on minimal intervention, he published numerous influential articles and promoted thread-by-thread tear mending in workshops throughout Europe, the USA, Australia, and Japan. Erma Hermens is Rijksmuseum Professor of Studio Practice and Technical Art History at the University of Amsterdam and Senior Researcher in Technical Art History at the Rijksmuseum. She was formerly Associate Professor in Technical Art History at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. She is Chief Editor of the online edition of Artmatters: International Journal of Technical Art History. Ann Hoenigswald, retired, was formerly Senior Conservator of Paintings at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. She is particularly interested in artists’ processes and intended surface coatings. Much of her research was directed towards the history of conservation in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Inken Maria Holubec is Conservator of the Restaurierungszentrum Düsseldorf, Germany, for the conservation of easel paintings. She is a graduate of the University of Applied Arts in Vienna, was involved in the Angelika Kauffmann Research Project and specialises in the technical examination of works of art by Angelika Kauffmann. Isabel Horovitz is a founder-member of the Painting Conservation Studio, London, and consultant conservator to the Royal Academy of Arts. She was a major catalogue contributor to the exhibition Copper as Canvas, 1998–9. She studied and has taught at UCL and the Courtauld Institute of Art. Ysbrand Hummelen is Senior Research Conservator at the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands. His research focuses on materiality in artists’ practices, and new strategies for conservation of modern and contemporary art. He co-edited the book Modern Art: Who Cares? and is co-founder of INCCA. Jeremy Hutchings is Associate Professor of Objects Conservation at Oslo University, Norway. He completed a PhD examining progress towards sustainable conservation management and has published on subjects such as sustainable museum buildings, treatment frequency, and competence in conservation-restoration. Alexander W. Katlan is a painting conservator and has written six art reference books on the exhibitions and the palette collection of the Salmagundi Club or on artists’ painting materials including American xxvii Contributors Artists’ Materials Suppliers Directory: Nineteenth Century (1987), and American Artists’ Materials: A Guide to Stretchers, Panels, Millboards and Stencil Marks (1992). Katrien Keune is a conservation scientist at the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Netherlands. She is respon- sible for the scientific research in the conservation studios and involved in international research projects. She also holds an appointment as Associate Professor of Chemistry at the University of Amsterdam (UvA). Peter Klein is a wood scientist at the University of Hamburg, Germany, and works in the fields of wood identification and dendrochronology for art objects. He consults internationally for many different museums and has published the results in various books and catalogues. Jens Klocke is a freelance conservator for polychrome works of art who specialises in conservation of Ancient Egyptian artefacts and mummies, and research involving microbes and art. He is Associate Lecturer at the Faculty of Preservation of Cultural Heritage at the University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Hildesheim. Tom Learner is Head of the Science Dept. at the Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles. Before joining the Getty in 2007, he was a Senior Conservation Scientist at Tate, London. He has a PhD in chemistry and a Diploma in conservation of easel paintings. Judith Lee was awarded her PhD on the characterisation of modern oil paints from the Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London in 2018. She also holds a BSc in Chemistry and a Postgraduate Diploma in the Conservation of Easel Paintings and is currently a Conservation Scientist at Tate. Rustin Levenson worked on the conservation staff of the National Gallery of Canada and the Metropolitan Museum of Art before opening Rustin Levenson Art Conservation, with studios in Miami, Florida, and New York City. She is co-author of Seeing Through Paintings, published in 2000. Annelies van Loon is a paintings research scientist at the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, and at the Mauritshuis, The Hague. She trained both as a chemist and as a paintings conservator. Her PhD thesis, ‘Color changes and chemical reactivity in seventeenth-century oil paintings’, was completed in 2008 at the Molecular Paintings Research Group at FOM Institute AMOLF Amsterdam. Sarah Lowengard is a historian of technology and science. She has been a Fellow at the Huntington Library, the Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, the Smithsonian Institution, and the National Science Foundation. Lowengard has also maintained an independent art conservation practice since 1978. Loa Ludvigsen is a painting conservator at the National Gallery of Denmark (SMK), and has worked since 2017 on analytical imaging at the SMK. She has a strong interest in the technical examination of easel paintings. She was the Editor-in-Chief of Meddelelser om Konservering and is currently Assistant Coordinator for the ICOM-CC Documentation Group. Rhona MacBeth is the Eijk and Rose-Marie van Otterloo Conservator of Paintings and the Head of Paintings Conservation at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. She has a long-standing interest in the technical examination of easel paintings. Over the past 25 years she has benefited from the opportunity to study paintings from the MFA’s extensive collections. xxviii Contributors Mireille te Marvelde is an art historian and paintings conservator employed at the Frans Hals Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. She has been active as the coordinator of the ICOM-CC Working Group on the Theory and History of Conservation and has lectured and published on related subjects. Ann Massing taught painting restoration at the Hamilton Kerr Institute, University of Cambridge, where she was Assistant to the Director, from 1978 to 2007. She has written on the history of painting materials and techniques and on the history of painting restoration. Debora D. Mayer is the Helen H. Glaser Conservator at the Weissman Preservation Center, and oversees the conservation of paper objects for Harvard University libraries special collections. Debora has specialised in the identification of fibres used to make paper, textiles, and other materials. Since 1992 she has been teaching fibre analysis to graduate students in conservation. Lance Mayer and Gay Myers, retired, worked as conservators at the Lyman Allyn Art Museum and as independent conservators. They have published widely on painters’ techniques, including American Painters on Technique: The Colonial Period to 1860 and American Painters on Technique, 1860–1945 (2011 and 2013). Ian McClure is the Chief Conservator at Yale University Art Gallery, USA, and is developing a Conservation Center for all of Yale University’s collections. Previously he directed the Hamilton Kerr Institute at Cambridge University, England, after training and working at Glasgow Art Gallery, Scotland. Mary McGinn is Paintings Conservator at Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Formerly Paintings Conservator at Winterthur Museum and Adjunct Associate Professor for the Winterthur/University of Delaware Program in Art Conservation. She has a special interest in decorative painted surfaces and has published on painted furniture and reverse-painted glass. Stefan Michalski is Senior Conservation Scientist at the Canadian Conservation Institute, developing and delivering preservation advice for the heritage community. He is co-author with Jim Druzik (formerly of the GCI) of the CCI Technical Bulletin: LED Lighting in Museums and Galleries. Jilleen Nadolny received her PhD in 2000 from the Courtauld and is Senior Research Associate at Art Access & Research, London. She has taught and published extensively on painting and gilding techniques, source research, and the history of art technology. Petria Noble has been Head of Paintings Conservation at the Rijksmuseum since 2014. She was formerly head of paintings conservation at the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague. Her interests centre on technical investigations as a key to understanding artists’ painting techniques and changes in appearance. She has authored and contributed to numerous publications. Peggy Olley is a conservator specialising in painted and decorative surfaces. She has worked in Furniture and Woodwork Conservation at the Philadelphia Museum of Art since 2006 and has co-taught Microscopy of Painted Surfaces with Susan Buck in the Winterthur/University of Delaware Program in Art Conservation. Bronwyn Ormsby is Principal Conservation Scientist at Tate, London. She currently manages the Conservation Science and Preventive Conservation team, and as a scientist, she specialises in the chemical analysis of works of art and research into the conservation of modern and contemporary art, with a particular emphasis on the surface cleaning of unvarnished painted surfaces. xxix Contributors Roy Perry joined the Tate Gallery Conservation Department in 1969 as an assistant painting restorer, and retired as Head of Conservation at Tate in 2005. In 2005, he was awarded the MBE for services to art in London. Roy has a particular interest in twentieth-century British painting, its techniques, and conservation. Karin Petersen began research on biodeterioration in 1985, in cooperation with Wolfgang E. Krumbein at Oldenburg University. For more than 20 years she has taught Biodeterioration of Cultural Property at Hildesheim University of Applied Science and Art. Alan Phenix, now retired, is a paintings conservator, conservation educator, and conservation scientist. Previously employed at the Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, and in the university sector in Britain, his research activities focused on methods and materials for the conservation of paintings and the scientific study of art materials both traditional and modern. Robert G. Proctor, Jr is a painting conservator in Houston, Texas. He has worked on numerous public murals and has developed a variety of structural techniques for minimal intervention. He teaches about varnishes and thread-by-thread tear re-weaving at US conservation programmes and in the Netherlands, France, Spain, and Germany. Barbara A. Ramsay is Chief Conservator at The John & Mable Ringling Museum of Art in Sarasota, Florida. She was formerly Director of the ARTEX Conservation Laboratory and first Conservator for the Clyfford Still Estate. She was previously Senior Conservator of Fine Art at the National Gallery of Canada and Visiting Associate Professor of Painting Conservation at Queen’s University. Joan Reifsnyder is a freelance paintings conservator and researcher. She teaches technical art history at American institutions in Italy, and has published on various aspects of traditional artists’ methods and materials. She also carries out technical translations in conservation and art history for a number of major institutions in the USA and Italy. Monona Rossol is a chemist/industrial hygienist specialising in art safety. She has authored nine books, planned ventilation and safety features for over 80 art buildings, and taught or consulted in the USA, Canada, Australia, UK, Portugal, Mexico, Holland, and the United Arab Emirates. Rebecca Rushfield is a New York City-based conservation consultant with an interest in the history and literature of the field. She is active in the work of the American Institute for Conservation and the ICOM Committee for Conservation, and received the Gettens Award for outstanding service to the AIC. David Saunders is an Honorary Research Fellow and former Keeper of Conservation and Scientific Research at the British Museum. Here and in his earlier career at the National Gallery, London, his research interests were mainly in preventive conservation and the application of imaging technologies to the examination of museum objects. Mikkel Scharff of the School of Conservation, Copenhagen, has researched, published and taught painting conservation techniques, conservation history, technical art history, analytical photography, and preventive conservation at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts since the 1980s, and fostered international collaboration in research through ICOM-CC, ICOM, and IIC. xxx Contributors Sibylle Schmitt is Senior Conservator at Kölnische Stadtmuseum, Cologne, member of the MOLART Project, and was trained in art history and paintings conservation. She has specialised in research on the condition of seventeenth-century paintings and restoration history, and has published articles on art technology. Tatja Scholte is Senior Researcher and Programme Manager of the Objects Conservation Programme at the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands. She has been involved with projects on interviewing artists and has coordinated international projects on conservation of contemporary art. She was co-founder of INCCA. Patricia Smithen teaches Paintings Conservation at Queen’s University, Kingston. From 1999 to 2015, she worked at Tate, London, as a Conservator of Modern & Contemporary Paintings and Head of Conservation. She has a Master’s in Art Conservation from Queen’s University. Lin Rosa Spaabaek is an independent conservator, working and living in Copenhagen, Denmark, inves- tigating mummy portrait painting techniques at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. She has a master’s degree in conservation of fine arts from the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen. Stergios Stassinopoulos was the head of the Conservation Department of the Benaki Museum for 35 years, and specialises in Byzantine icon techniques and conservation. He consults on the icons of the Holy Monastery St Catherine, Sinai, and has taught and lectured in Greece and abroad to improve the level of icon conservation. Chris Stavroudis is a paintings conservator in private practice in Los Angeles. He has developed the Modular Cleaning Program, a system for the rapid prototyping of cleaning systems for painted surfaces. Maartje Stols-Witlox is an art historian, paintings conservator, and lecturer in paintings conservation at the University of Amsterdam, Netherlands. Her most recent publications focus on historical ground recipes for oil painting, historical lead white processing, and historical conservation recipes. Joyce Hill Stoner is Rosenberg Professor in the Art Conservation Department at the University of Delaware/Winterthur Museum, where she has taught paintings conservation since 1976; she was awarded the American Institute for Conservation’s Lifetime Achievement award in 2003 and the CAA/Heritage Preservation Award for Distinction in Scholarship and Conservation in 2011. Noëlle Streeton is Associate Professor for Conservation at the University of Oslo. She has published extensively on the materials and workshop practices of late-medieval painters and sculptors, especially those active in the Burgundian Netherlands, northern Germany and Scandinavia. Her current research centres on the history of conservation, iconoclasm, and material culture. Lena Stringari is Deputy Director and Chief Conservator of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and adjunct Professor at the Institute of Fine Arts Conservation Center. A conservator of paintings as well as ephemeral and conceptual art, Lena has taught and lectured extensively on the conservation of contemporary art, ethics, and subjectivity in conservation. Michael Swicklik is a Senior Conservator of Paintings at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. Michael’s research has included painting techniques from various geographical regions from the sixteenth to the twentieth century. xxxi Contributors Karen Thomas is a paintings conservator in private practice in New York City, specialising in the treatment of Old Master paintings. Formerly, she was Associate Conservator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Carolyn Tomkiewicz retired from the position as Paintings Conservator at the Brooklyn Museum (1986– 2012) and now works in private practice in Brooklyn. She has co-taught adhesive workshops for AIC, has lectured at Pratt Institute on the history of panel and canvas paintings, and taught the Heiber thread-bythread tear repair method and adhesives for paintings conservation at the Institute of Fine Arts, NYU. Joyce H. Townsend is a senior conservation scientist at Tate, with over 30 years’ experience of researching artists’ materials and conservation processes, developing analytical methods, and publishing and editing in the conservation science literature. She is Director of Publications for IIC. Jørgen Wadum is Director of Wadum Art Technological Studies (WATS),Vanløse, Denmark. He is an art historian and paintings conservator specialising in the painting techniques of sixteenth- and seventeenthcentury Dutch and Flemish artists, and he has published and lectured extensively on these and other conservation issues. Valentine Walsh is a paintings conservator who has worked for museums, dealers, and private clients in Britain since 1974. She co-founded the Pigmentum Project and is co-author of The Pigment Compendium. She is an Honorary Research Associate at the Research Laboratory for Art History and the History of Art, University of Oxford. Jill Whitten is a painting conservator in Houston, Texas. Work experience includes the Art Institute of Chicago, J. Paul Getty Museum, and National Gallery of Art. She teaches about conservation materials at US conservation programmes and abroad in the Netherlands, France, Spain, Germany, and Norway. Richard C. Wolbers has retired from the Art Conservation Department at the University of Delaware; he authored the 2000 reference book Cleaning Painted Surfaces: Aqueous Methods. In 2006 he was awarded the American Institute for Conservation’s Lifetime Achievement award and, in 2009, the outstanding achievement award by the AIC’s Painting Specialty Group. Christina Young is Professor of Conservation and Technical Art History at the University of Glasgow. She was formerly a reader in easel painting conservation, conservation scientist, and structural conservator at the Courtauld Institute of Art, London. She has published on mechanics, optical monitoring, and structural conservation of works on canvas and panel. Stefan Zumbühl is Conservation Scientist at the Art Technology Laboratory of the Bern University of Applied Sciences and a lecturer in the Department of Conservation and Restoration especially researching the effect of solvents on context works of art. xxxii Foreword The literature of what we now call paintings conservation spans many centuries and all the principal European languages. From medieval manuscripts that describe the washing of painted surfaces through nineteenth-century manuals of restoration to twenty-first-century scientific investigation into artists’ materials, the range of primary and secondary sources is vast. There is undoubtedly even more than we know, waiting to be discovered in the world’s libraries, archives, and the working documents of fine art collections. Furthermore, beyond the written record, we are also the inheritors of a great practical tradition of examination, treatment, and research from our predecessors in the restoration studios, conservation laboratories, and scientific departments of the past. The first edition of this outstanding book showed that the seemingly impossible task of encompassing the whole narrative of paintings conservation in a single volume could not only be realised, but could also reflect the best of current knowledge and up-to-date thinking. It was a remarkable and important achievement: for the first time, we were looking at a coherent account of the entire history, philosophy, theory, and practice of the discipline. Now, in this second edition, the distinguished authors have revised and expanded their accounts, explored new developments and suggested fresh informed perspectives. Again, the visionary editors have earned the gratitude of all of us in the field by re-defining the frontiers of this astonishingly complex territory and by judiciously distilling the expertise of the finest minds in the profession. In the foreword to the first edition, Isaac Newton’s remark that ‘If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants’ was invoked to acknowledge the debt we owe to those pioneers, teachers, mentors, and wise practitioners who preceded and guided us in the work we do for the generations that will follow. This volume marks – celebrates – a defining moment for a profession that has confidence in reviewing its own history, explaining its methodology, and affirming its fundamental guiding principles. David Bomford Former Chair of Conservation and Head of European Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston xxxiii newgenprepdf Acknowledgements The Editors are grateful foremost to the team of more than 90 international authors who have contributed to the original book and now to its updates and revisions for 2021. Countries represented include Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy,The Netherlands, Russia, Spain, the UK, and the USA. As David Bomford noted in his thoughtful foreword, ‘Trying to encompass the whole narrative of paintings conservation in a single volume might seem an impossible task’, and it certainly has been a challenging one. When inevitable choices were necessary due to space limitations, we tried to capture existing expertise from our specialist authors while referencing the literature to cover supplementary information. Rather than creating a uniform syntax, we have attempted to retain some of the characteristic voices of our multiple contributors, edited to the UK Routledge house style. I am thankful especially to Joyce Townsend for her extraordinary overall advice and guidance (she may be one of the few other people who have read the entire book and provided specific updates to at least six chapters), and to my co-editor Rebecca Rushfield, most notably for her patient work with the monumental bibliography found in the back of the book and her unswerving collegial support. Jørgen Wadum and Noëlle Streeton were heroic in their efforts to compile, refine, and now update the solid supports section. Special thanks are due to Petria Noble and the Mauritshuis for the stunning cover images and to all of the institutions who helped with the illustrations and are credited in the captions. The Getty Museum and the Getty Conservation Institute both helped to cover costs for photo reproductions. Additional acknowledgements can be found at the ends of the chapters. My students, family, and co-workers have been most patient during this process. We thank chronologically the Routledge editors who have assisted us: Stephanie Havard, Sarah Vanstone, Lanh Te, Hannah Shakespeare, Mike Travers, Rhys Griffith, and now Heidi Lowther who has presided over the current revision in addition to our collaborations with Martin Noble (all through nights and weekends) and with Victoria Day, Emily Morgan, and Nicola Howcroft. J.H.S. Both this book and the original edition of The Conservation of Easel Paintings would never have come to fruition without the superhuman efforts of Joyce Hill Stoner. Joyce managed to fit what became a full-time night and early morning job with her full-time day job teaching, researching, and directing a doctoral programme, while finding time to write odes and songs for conservation-related celebrations as well as a new musical. I am grateful that my parents, George and Rita Rushfield had the chance to see the first edition which was published a few months before their deaths, but sad that they never knew how important the book became for the field of paintings conservation. I dedicate my efforts on this volume to them. R.A.R. xxxiv Part I Technical art history, examination, documentation, and scientific analysis 1 Art technological source research Documentary sources on European painting to the twentieth century, with Appendices I–VII Jilleen Nadolny, Mark Clarke, Erma Hermens, Ann Massing, and Leslie Carlyle 1.1 Introduction To successfully care for cultural heritage, conservators must have an extensive understanding of the complex material and historical nature of objects. Professionals working in conservation and its related fields have increasingly favoured a multidisciplinary approach as the most effective manner in which to study paintings. Direct study of the objects, combined with scientific analysis and scholarship of contemporary texts of many different types, can provide both technical information and a unique insight into painters’ materials and methods. This chapter will review the latter type of material: the available types of historical documentary sources concerning the physicality of paintings. The study of the materiality of art has increasingly been recognised as an important field, often referred to in the early twenty-first century as ‘technical art history’. Technical art history is interdisciplinary and can illuminate studies of art by combining art-historical research with detailed examination of the artefacts themselves, possible reconstructions of materials or methods, and scientific analysis. Technical art history frequently also includes scholarship concerning documentary sources, recently termed ‘art technological source research’ (ATSR). Although these activities often evolved alongside conservation, they may equally be the work of specialists. In 2005, a Working Group, ‘Art Technological Source Research’ (ATSR), was established within the International Council of Museums-Conservation Committee (ICOM-CC). Recent ATSR published conference proceedings can be recommended as examples of good practice (Clarke et al., 2005; Kroustallis et al., 2008; Hermens and Townsend, 2009). By using a holistic methodology that combines the study of documentary material along with reconstructions (see Chapter 2), scientific analysis (Chapters 17–22), and traditional art-historical research, a new degree of interpretative precision can be achieved (Clarke, 2009). Sources for the history of art technology come in many forms. They can encompass realia (historical tools and materials), visual documents (images – self-portraits, illustrations for books, photographs – or even films of artists at work), or various textual sources. This section will concentrate on written sources, which may include technical treatises, manuals, recipe collections, colourmen’s ledgers, artists’ correspondence and diaries, and transcripts of artists’ interviews. These testimonies allow researchers and conservators 3 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. to see the past with a broader understanding of the possibilities and limitations of artistic practice at the time the materials and techniques were used, and so to come to an improved appreciation of the relation of artists to their materials. There are substantial numbers of documentary sources that survive. The present chapter therefore is not meant to be comprehensive, but rather should be read as an introduction to the ATSR field. The importance of context and background knowledge for source research cannot be overstressed. For example, while it would seem logical to assume that most artists’ treatises were written by artists for artists, in fact (as will be demonstrated) this was not always so. It might seem likely that published collections of technical information were commonly in use at the time of publication, but this was also not consistently the case. Thus, this chapter will outline the types of sources to survive from different periods, including appendices of the most important, influential, or well-known texts, and point to more comprehensive published bibliographies. But perhaps more importantly, it also aims to provide an introduction to the effective use of such sources: their value and use, their strengths and limitations, and suitable methods for their interpretation. 1.2 Interpretation For anyone wishing to work with historical texts, it is important to be aware of the various forms in which such sources are available for study. Many texts of more recent date will be available in printed editions; others are easily accessible as re-publications. However, source research is not always so straightforward. Unique, handwritten texts (manuscripts) may be hard to decipher due to the style of handwriting or the use of abbreviations. When handwritten texts are copied (transcribed), this should be a literal rendering of the original handwritten text, either in another hand, or in printed form. The text may also be translated from one language to another. In each of these stages – translation, transcription, publication – mistakes and uncertainties may arise. Of all of these, translation is perhaps the most difficult, especially if the translation happens many decades or centuries later, as the exact meaning of the technical terminology may be lost and open to interpretation and re-interpretation. It is for this reason that new editions and translations of famous texts continue to appear (both the treatises of Cennino Cennini and Theophilus – see discussions below – each exist in over 35 editions, with more in the works). In the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth, translations and transcriptions were often reviewed. In reviews, scholars engaged in constructive debates, which often added further levels of understanding to the published versions of older texts. Unfortunately, this useful tradition is now often overlooked. In order to understand and interpret manuscripts, scholars must consider all available forms of comparative material, including texts from the same period (where, with luck, one may find other examples of a term in use and, with great luck, even a definition), not excluding current scientific data and reconstructions. Since borrowing and copying from older sources was commonplace, recipes may not necessarily be contemporary with the handwriting or, later on, with the printed book. However, this tendency to recycle becomes less marked with works of a more modern date, and certainly the concept of scholarship in the modern sense is clearly evident in some eighteenth-century sources, and by the end of the nineteenth century it is common. In general, use of a text should be approached with care since it reflects an interpretation, making the act of citing it an interpretation of an interpretation, and in the case of older texts, many times removed. When one wishes to use a text, it is useful to go through a brief checklist: • When and where was the text written? • By whom and for whom was it written? • In what historical context was it written? 4 Art technological source research • What level of interpretation (transcription, translation, interpretation) has the text undergone, and what is the most recent/most respected interpretation of it? The form that publications take reflects the priorities of their times. We may take, as an example, texts on pigment recipes. In the Middle Ages, such recipes were often compiled and copied by hand by monks (not painters) eager to preserve any and all forms of useful knowledge. In the late nineteenth century, texts on pigment manufacture and permanence could be written by chemists for the paint industry, not only for artists. Different again are the texts dealing with pigments produced by Renaissance humanists, which often discussed materials summarily, as their main objective was to convince the educated reader of the noble status of the painter, long seen as merely a craftsman (Clarke, 2008). 1.3 Technical terminology In translating these technical documents, terminology remains contentious. Handwritten texts (especially those of the Middle Ages) suffer from inconsistencies in scribal copying, from copyists’ interpretations of earlier terminology, and from a lack of standardised spelling or the use of now obscure abbreviations. The spelling and function of some words changed over time and from one language to another (e.g. ‘minium’ and ‘vermilion’, which have exchanged meanings more than once), and many terms had multiple definitions; thus a word may not have meant what it appears to mean today. The lack of standardisation of substance names, particularly those of plants, can sometimes preclude their definitive translation. Certainty is likewise impossible in the elucidation of certain specific procedures. The technical literature is replete with examples that demonstrate circular reasoning, where researchers used published translations of recipes to arrive at interpretations of processes, while translators had used these same interpretations to suggest the meaning of a puzzling word or passage. While source material can be concise and clear, establishing meaning should be approached with caution both when examining a copied version of a centuries-old text and when reading a printed tome on pigment manufacture from a hundred years ago. A single, fixed definition may not be possible. Equally, extreme circumspection when using or preparing translations is indispensable, and some reference should always be made to the original where feasible. 1.4 Text vs practice The disjuncture between practice and text appears to be most characteristic of the early Middle Ages before ca. 1200, but remains an issue in certain works through to the eighteenth century. A spectrum of reliability is found; while some of the many instructions found in the treatises were clearly practical, others were not. New contributions were added gradually to the copied, older material that formed the compilations, and later, with the introduction of the printing press, older works were frequently simply repackaged or lightly updated. Scholarship is making progress in defining this relationship between text and practice. As a rule of thumb, texts in vernacular European languages (rather than in Latin) that appear from the fourteenth century onwards tend to be more direct records of contemporary workshop practices. 1.5 History of art technological source research The earliest technological texts date from at least the seventh century bc (Assyrian recipes for ceramic glazes and coloured glass, arguably copies of earlier material). Art technological source research, including texts covering painting, is known to date from the first century, when Pliny and Vitruvius incorporated earlier texts into their own treatises (see below). Their texts appear to have been written for the ‘general 5 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. reader’ rather than for the professional practitioner.This reworking of technical material for a non-technical audience has continued to the present. Art technological source research as it is now understood began with the eighteenth-century publications of texts such as Lodovico Antonio Muratori’s Antiques Italicae medii aevii (1738–42, 6 vols), which included the important ‘Lucca Manuscript’, also known as the Compositiones ad tingere musiva, a recipe compilation from ca. 800 (Kirby, 2008: 8). Many eighteenth- and nineteenth-century publications simply reproduced the text of manuscripts, thus making them available to a wider public. This approach is typical of the contemporary antiquarian interest in recording textual documents of historic interest. In such cases, texts were published with little or no commentary or with wildly inaccurate interpretations. An interest in texts was one necessary factor for the successful development of source research; however, it was not enough. Without supplementary information (trial reproductions, observations made from original objects, and, later on, analytical data), it is impossible to decipher the technical terminology found in historical texts.With the advent of modern science and the increasingly ‘scientific’ study of paintings within the conservation field, such data have been collected gradually. However, the first attempts to work in this manner – to support the study of technical sources with scientific experiments – also came into use in the eighteenth century (Nadolny, 2003). The origins of this combined approach date back to the 1750s and the work of the French connoisseur and collector Count Caylus. He focused on the interpretation of textual sources via reconstruction – of the classical technique of encaustic painting – and included scientific analysis along with study of original texts.Towards the end of the twentieth century, a critical mass of data was achieved, providing scholars with sufficient comparative material with which to move the scholarship of art technological texts of the past to a new level. Thus, ATSR is properly an end product of the labours of conservators’ tireless documentation and of the results from reconstructions and from scientific investigations. Despite these publications, the majority of scientific research on European paintings, at least until the late nineteenth century, was in some manner related to a single textual source: namely, the Italian painter Giorgio Vasari’s (incorrect) accounts of the invention of oil painting by the Flemish master Jan Van Eyck (contained in Vasari’s seminal work, The Lives of the Painters, 1550/1568, the first significant text on the history of European painting). Indeed, a desire to elucidate the history of European oil painting appears to have been a major motivation behind many of these early eighteenth- and nineteenth-century publications of earlier work – for example, in the compilation of the medieval German monk ‘Theophilus’, Lessing’s Vom Alter der Ölmalerei aus dem Theophilus Presbyter (On the age of oil painting, from the text of the priest Theophilus, 1874) and in Raspe’s A critical essay on oil painting, proving that the art of painting in oil was known before the pretended discovery of John and Hubert van Eyck (1781) (see below), and Giuseppe Tambroni’s 1821 edition of the Tuscan painter Cennino Cennini’s Il Libro dell’Arte (The Book of the Arts) (ca. 1400?), published in transcription in 1821 (and soon followed by many other editions and translations). This latter source established evidence of the use of oil in fourteenth-century Italy (in contradiction to Vasari’s account).The Cennini scholarship is difficult and complex; an interesting analysis was presented by Troncelliti (2004), and the Berlin exhibition catalogue (in German) summarised recent scholarship (Löhr and Weppelmann, 2008). In terms of sheer numbers of editions, the writings of Vasari, Cennini, and Theophilus are the three most studied historical texts on painting, following their revival in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ironically, it is only the Lives of Vasari that is known to have been influential in his own time. Although whole books on medieval painting have been based on Cennini’s work (such as D.V. Thompson’s hugely popular work on medieval painting first published in 1936), there appear to have been very few copies of Il Libro dell’Arte originally available, and his text is not known to have had any contemporary influence. As for the Theophilus compilation (in its many forms), the extent of use of the recipes has yet to be determined. The mid-nineteenth century saw a great period of interest in art technological sources and a great progression in scholarship in this area.The most notable studies were C.L. Eastlake’s Materials for a History of Oil 6 Art technological source research Painting (1847–69), and Mrs M.P. Merrifield’s Original Treatises dating from the XIIth to XVIIIth Centuries on the Arts of Painting (1849). Later, more general works appeared: the series Quellenschriften für Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik edited by A. Ilg et al. (Theophilus Presbyter, 1871–1908), and the series Beiträge zur Entwicklungs-Geschichte der Maltechnik by E. Berger (1879–1909). In the 1930s, the work of Daniel V. Thompson gave fresh impetus to the development of the modern interdisciplinary approach, and the combination of textual research with reconstructions and scientific analyses appears in numerous publications on medieval craftsmanship (e.g. Thompson, 1932–33, 1934, 1935, 1954; for a more comprehensive bibliography see Clarke, 2001: 148–9). Equally, research relating to Vasari’s text continues unabated (for some of the history, see Nadolny, 2005; Effmann, 2006), and, it was in the second half of the twentieth century that scientific research together with the study of documentary sources finally matured into the rich areas of art scholarship now employed. DOCUMENTARY SOURCES RELATING TO THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING IN EUROPE, TO CA. 1550 (SEE ALSO APPENDIX I) What follows is a brief summary of the current state of the art for source research organised chronologically, with an acknowledged emphasis on sources available in English. Readers are referred to comprehensive bibliographies to complete this information. 1.6 Introduction: Europe to ca. 1550 The earliest panel paintings to have survived date from the twelfth century, but written sources substantially pre-date them. There is a surprisingly large number of medieval sources containing explicit technical information about workshop practices, although we have barely begun to understand how relevant and how useful such texts were to actual painters. The two principal forms are ‘recipe books’ (treatises or compilations containing instructions, recommendations, and formulations) and legal and financial documents (guild regulations, contracts, accounts, etc.). This section will outline these types of documents, and indicate their uses, benefits, and limitations. 1.7 Treatises and recipe collections There are over 400 surviving medieval books that include texts of explicit technical information on painting, varying from substantial compositions to isolated recipes jotted in margins (catalogued in Clarke, 2001). There is however a certain degree of overlap, as several groups of manuscripts quote from common sources. Nevertheless, there is a greater variety of regions and dates represented than is commonly assumed, much of which is barely exploited. Topics relating directly to painting include: • • • • Making pigments (notably lead white, vermilion, verdigris, artificial blues, lakes, and refining ultramarine). Judging and testing the quality of materials and defining their properties. Preparing media, adhesives, and varnishes. Processing pigments and tempering – suiting the medium to the pigment (which pigment is enhanced by gum, glue, oil, or parts of egg). • Suiting the pigment and medium to the support (wall, panel, parchment, cloth, polychrome sculptures, glass, metal) and avoiding incompatible combinations of materials that would lead to discolouration. • Imitating costly materials. • Gilding, from the production of metal leaf (in sources pre-1200) to its application and embellishment; many recipes are concerned with the imitation of gold leaf (and to some degree, silver) by 7 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. cheaper means; creation of gilded relief ornament – additive, subtractive, deformative (i.e. compressing a material, such as with a punch tool) – is also described. • Preparation of supports (specifications of materials, construction, adhesives, and joining techniques, compensation for imperfections, coverings, grounds, primings). • Descriptions of how to use materials to obtain specific effects (colour combinations of pigments, laying glazes over opaque substrata, etc.). • Terminology and synonyms. 1.8 Financial and legal documents With treatises and recipes it is often difficult to determine precisely where, when, by whom, and on what objects the techniques described were practised. Consequently, dated, signed, locatable documents (referring to identifiable commissions, towns, and individuals) provide extremely useful complementary and comparative material. The development of church, state, and merchant classes throughout Europe provided an expanded market for painting. The resultant legal and financial records are by their nature practical and specific, and often stipulate the materials that were favoured, purchased for use, and how and where they were used or prohibited, all at defined times and places. While many collections of recipes were assembled by monks and later also by secular painters and amateurs, the business documents are direct evidence of the participation of painters in the ongoing secularisation and professionalisation of the craft. Painting in the public sphere had to be controlled and documented; in this context, literacy became essential to craftsmen.Today, the resultant paper trail (usually written in the vernacular, and indeed, a paper trail that largely continues, unbroken, to the present day) provides an invaluable counterpart to the study of recipe collections. Although relevant information occasionally may be found in many types of document, such as painters’ correspondence, contemporary literature, inventories, wills, and lawsuits (all of which continued to be produced well after the Middle Ages), the most substantial types comprise the following: • Records of expenditure (households of nobility, civic organisations, religious foundations, and artists’ workshop accounts). These may contain information on materials purchased (prices and quantity) and how they were used; costs, including payments to painters (thus, workshop structure, salaries, types of financial agreements); length of time taken to complete a job. • Guild ordinances. Technical information may include: stipulations for painters’ training (apprenticeship, years spent abroad, requirements for qualifying as a master); techniques and materials approved by the guild and those forbidden; delimitations between the work of painters and other crafts, and the distinctions between different types of painters. • Contracts. Some contracts provide details concerning which materials and techniques were to be used and in what context, deadlines for the work, workshop organisation (who was to do what), and amounts and terms of payment. Iconography was often carefully described, and a rendering of the design was sometimes included with the contract. The earliest known surviving legal documents relating to painting date to the thirteenth century. These include records of payment (from major projects such as the decoration of the interior of Westminster Palace; J.T. Smith, 1807) and painters’ guild ordinances (the earliest known being Paris, 1269; de Lespinasse and Bonnardot, 1879). However, the bulk of the remaining sources date from the early fifteenth century onwards. The relevance of this material for technical study can vary greatly; in some contracts extensive specifications for use of materials are included, and in exceptional cases the objects they concern still exist. Other examples contain no technical information and/or the object referred to has disappeared. Because certain materials were very expensive (notably gold leaf, mineral blue pigments, and red lakes), their use is 8 Art technological source research often stipulated in contracts, guild ordinances, and accounts of purchase. Although such guidelines are not ubiquitous, there is ample evidence that less than honest substitution of material was a common problem throughout Europe. Given the present state of research, it is difficult to guess at the actual number of surviving documents from any one category, although clearly only a small fraction remains. For example, ongoing work on guilds (see overview in Nadolny, 2001) indicates that originals or copies of painters’ guild ordinances drafted before 1550 survive from at least 50 European cities. In Italy, the only area where an attempt has been made to tally existing contracts, the survival of 154 contracts dated before the mid-sixteenth century has been documented (O’Malley, 2005: 1). 1.9 The origins of medieval technical treatises Medieval treatises were not always straightforward records of contemporary workshop practice, and it is unclear how many of those that survive were written by the artisans themselves. Ancient technology (Egyptian, Indian, Mesopotamian, Greek, and Roman), as transmitted in written form, was the basis for many medieval texts, which were in effect mostly compilations rather than original compositions. The reasons for their compilation are complex and unclear; interest in ancient cultures and in the general preservation of textual sources seems to have been often more important than any intention to actually use the recorded recipes. Indications for painting, mixed together with those for the other craft disciplines, are found incorporated within books of all types: scientific texts, collections of miscellaneous practical information, medicine, and alchemy. The earliest substantial technical information on painting, from the first century ad, is found in Pliny’s Natural History and Vitruvius’s Architecture (Book VII); however, both are principally concerned with murals. Their descriptions were widely extracted and copied in medieval technical collections. Of course certain classical descriptions (e.g. of corrosion-product pigments) would have remained relevant throughout the medieval period. However, the precise origins of most influential material that found its way into the endlessly copied compilations of recipes, derived from certain anonymous treatises from Ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, and the East, remain unknown. 1.10 Conclusions: Europe to ca. 1550 Medieval technical texts contain, for example, descriptions of materials that may be now so deteriorated on extant documents and artworks as to be undetectable (e.g. organic yellow dyes and lake pigments), providing excellent signposts for the present-day conservator or technical art historian. Due to the increased refinement and availability of both scientific analysis and of technical studies, there is a wealth of evidence against which the information contained in treatises can be tested. However, a number of challenges remain. For example, finding copies of some of the earliest publications can be almost as difficult as finding the original documents. The vast majority of these sources have remained unexploited: almost unknown even by specialists, the majority unedited and unpublished, and the originals widely distributed geographically and subject to unavoidably stringent access restrictions, with unfamiliar handwriting and language frequently creating considerable barriers. These inconveniences have led to researchers using the same handful of well-known, often-published texts as though they were widely applicable, even when the artists under examination were far from the period and place of the text. The past reliance on a relatively small group of treatises for technical research on the Middle Ages makes it of utmost importance that the numerous other texts become known and studied. This can help to counteract the many over-simplifications commonly encountered in descriptions of medieval workshop practice, resulting from historians of art and of art technology having relied heavily on Cennini and Theophilus. 9 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. ART TECHNOLOGICAL DOCUMENTS FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO CA. 1900, AN OVERVIEW 1.11 Introduction: new ways of thinking and dissemination By the turn of the fifteenth century, a new intellectual climate, instigated by the philosophical, scientific, and technical developments of the Renaissance, resulted in the production of new types of documentary material related to the study of painting. It is important to stress that although the Renaissance (both literally and figuratively) implied a ‘rebirth’, the idea of rapid, radical change is overly simplistic. So too is a common belief concerning the evolution of technology – that ‘new’ and ‘better’ forms will swiftly replace ‘older’ and ‘inferior’ versions of things. Rather, old and new forms generally co-exist over a long period of time, and changes are implemented only slowly. Thus, while a number of new types of documentary evidence gradually established themselves from the fifteenth century, the older types, such as technical compilations of varying levels of practicality, continued to be produced (indeed, through the nineteenth century). These include the popular ‘books of secrets’, the German Kunstbüchlein (literally, ‘little books of art’), and other types of accumulated material: chemical, mineral, botanical, philosophical, etc. Good examples are found in Merrifield, 1849 (ed. 1967): the sixteenth century ‘Secreti Diversi’ (the ‘Marciana Manuscript’) (603–40), the late sixteenth- or early seventeenth-century Venetian ‘Paduan Manuscript’ (641–717), and the text by the Venetian painter Giovanni Batista Volpato, 1670–ca. 1706 (721–55). Indeed, versions of some of the Theophilus recipes of the twelfth century may still be found mixed in with newer texts in books produced many centuries later. While many such compendia consisted primarily of recycled material, over time their contents became increasingly representative of contemporary knowledge. New, more scientific and technological approaches to the material world and more developed economic structures resulted in new kinds of documentary sources. Many of the written records now familiar to us have their origins in the Renaissance: • The issuing of patents on a regular basis first began in Venice for works of art, first prints, in the sixteenth century (Witcombe, 2004). • Taxation and trade became increasingly well documented, resulting in extensive archives. • Specialisation in the various areas of the painter’s craft – preparers, panel and canvas makers, frame makers, gilders, colour manufacturers, and art dealers – resulted in specialist writings on various subjects (e.g. Kirby et al., 2010). • A higher proportion (though still small numbers) of painters began to keep journals and records (for example, those of Dürer or da Vinci). • Last, but by no means least, texts on art history and art theory, which took an intellectual rather than a technical approach to painting, were sometimes written by educated artists and sometimes by intellectuals interested in the arts. The new genre of writing on the arts was to have an unprecedented impact on European thought. But this was not a result of its content alone. It was enabled by the invention of the typographic printing press in the 1440s in Mainz, Germany, by Johannes Gutenberg. This discovery has been described as the most important event of the modern era. Initially used for the replication of religious texts, this new tool was soon set to printing a range of books, including art technological texts, which first appeared in the early sixteenth century, primarily in Italy and southern Germany. Much has been written about the intellectual repackaging of the arts in the Renaissance, but perhaps nowhere as insightfully as in the work of Pamela Long, who observed that: 10 Art technological source research The new alliance of praxis and techne in fifteenth-century Italian and south German regions was a nexus within which authorship concerning the mechanical arts flourished. Men from diverse backgrounds – university-educated humanists and artisan-trained practitioners – took to writing about matters that had previously existed primarily in the arena of skilled practice. These authors usually wrote within the context of patronage, dedicating their books to princes, emperors, and oligarchs. Such books possessed value in relationships between patrons and clients because the arts that they treated themselves had gained cultural significance. Whereas authorship helped to transform some arts from the arena of skilled know-how to that of discursive knowledge, it did not change artisans into learned men. It is more accurate to say that it prepared certain of the mechanical arts for appropriation by learned culture. (Long, 2001: 39) This argument is particularly relevant to the treatises on painting produced during the Renaissance and after. Although the majority of painters were not learned men, to excel within the circles of the powerful patrons they worked for, a minority were or were compelled to be, more learned than had previously been the case. In addition, painting had now become a pastime suitable for learned men (and also women) to take up, to study, and to write about. 1.12 Formation of the first academies and new literature on painting The intellectual climate of the Renaissance brought with it the need for painters to obtain certain additional types of knowledge. This knowledge could be obtained in two major ways: from books, which taught elements of perspective, proportion, anatomy, and optics (often accompanied by religious, literary, moral, historical, and critical reflections) or from study in groups. First in Italy, painters followed the lead of other learned members of society, and organised small meetings in clubs or academies, as had become fashionable by around 1500. The activities undertaken were different from those of the workshop; they involved pursuits such as reading poetry and listening to music as well as cultivating the intellectual side of the painters’ craft (Goldstein, 1996: 10–15). Only later, in the second half of the sixteenth century, did the focus turn to the perfection of drawing and composition. It was in this context that the multitalented humanist Leon Battista Alberti composed ‘On Painting’ (original Latin De pictura) in 1435 (Spencer, 1966). It was translated into Italian (Della pittura) in the following year and became immediately popular, but it was to become truly influential only in the mid sixteenth century, when it went into print (Latin: Basel, 1540; Italian: Venice, 1547). Alberti’s precedent is present in the prefaces to Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Artists (first published Florence, 1550, and in a substantially revised version in 1568). These two texts have arguably been the most influential in the history of European art. ‘On Painting’ has been called the first modern treatise on art. It is essentially about theory with relatively little on practice (Alberti himself was not a professional painter) and is worlds away from the approximately contemporary, highly practical manuscript of Cennini (Troncelliti, 2004). Here, painting is described in terms of rhetoric, mathematics, and optics, with a scientific and theoretical approach that emphasised the changing position of painting from craft liberal art. Its themes had powerful resonance over a long period; ‘On Painting’ eventually became one of the key sources for academic painting in seventeenth-century France and eighteenth-century England (Spencer, 1966: 12). While Alberti broke ground with theory, the painter Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Artists established the genre of early modern art history and remains one of the key sources on sixteenth-century Italian art. Recent scholarship has suggested that Vasari was not the sole author, but that his extensive circle of educated contacts also contributed (Frangenberg, 2002). Principally dedicated to artists’ biographies, the introductory chapters – divided into Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting – contain practical advice. The 11 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. Lives itself, however, also includes technical information in the artists’ biographies, either on idiosyncratic methods used by particular artists or on techniques used in specific works. The huge impact made with the dissemination of Vasari’s work via printed editions may be seen by the great number of authors that sought to follow his model for the history of art of a specific region. Karel Van Mander was probably the first Vasarian author with his ‘Painting Book’ (Het Schilderboeck, 1604), the first Dutch translation of Vasari, which included original chapters on painters of the Low Countries. Subsequently, publications inspired to greater or lesser degrees by Vasari were printed throughout Europe; for example early versions appeared in Spain (Francisco Pacheco, El Arte de la Pintura, 1638), Germany (Joachim von Sandrart, Deutsche Akademie, 1675), and England (William Aglionby, Painting Illustrated, 1685). Apart from inspiring a great number of imitators,Vasari played an important role in articulating a central topic of debate, which was to become a point of contention for centuries to come: he was the first to express in writing his opinion that disegno (implying the aspect of drawing, design, and composition) was superior to that of colore (colouring, implying the imitation of nature, commonly associated with the work of Titian and the Venetian school). His critical role in founding the first major art academy, the Accademia del Disegno, in Florence in 1563, firmly cemented the association between the Academy, and the virtues of disegno, for later scholars of painting (Goldstein, 1996: 16–29).The Roman academy, set up in 1577, generally followed the opinion of the Florentines in regard to the aesthetic hierarchy, which was not sympathetic to the style of painting for which Titian was known, which embodied the primacy of colore. Following the lead of the Italians, the concept of the academy and academic teaching of disegno was to spread throughout Europe in the following centuries. France, in particular, developed a particularly influential school of academic painting. 1.13 Italian treatises post-Vasari (see Appendix II) In the seventeenth century, Italian writings on the arts resulted in treatises in which learned painters and scholars wrote about the hierarchies of genres and elaborated on the ideal composition rather than focusing on practical advice. Still, insights into contemporary practice can be gained from many of these works. Raffaele Borghini’s Il Riposo, published in 1584, is the first treatise aimed at lay audiences. It aims to educate the reader in the concepts of the High Maniera (the precepts of the second phase of Mannerism). Borghini’s text includes remarks on practical issues, and the second book contains a discussion of the tracing of designs and preparation of pigments. Written as a dialogue, it is one of the key texts on Florentine art and the artistic milieu at the time of Vasari. Giovanni Battista Armenini (1530–1609), a painter and theorist, published De Veri Precetti della Pittura (On the True Precepts of the Art of Painting), in 1587, which closely followed the structure of Alberti’s Della pittura. The text contains anecdotes of painters, with many borrowings from Vasari, mixed with information on the painters’ practice. It is considered one of the most comprehensive treatises on late sixteenth-century Italian art. More theoretical and complex texts are the Trattato della Pittura (1584) and the Idea del Tempio della Pittura (1590) by Giovanni Lomazzo (1538–1600) (Klein and Zerner, 1966; Ackerman, 1967). Lomazzo, an important art theorist and a practising painter, followed Alberti’s example in using classical rhetoric, firmly positioning painting among the liberal arts. As mentioned above, in addition to these works, translations and discussion of a number of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century treatises may be found in Merrifield (1849). 1.14 French treatises (see Appendix III) Until the establishment of the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in 1648, workshops and guilds (corporations of artisans) were the basic units of artistic organisation in France, and the practical side of the craft of painting was passed on mainly through word of mouth from master to pupil. The earliest French treatise with information on oil painting is included in a compilation of essays published in 1621 under the 12 Art technological source research name of René François, a pseudonym for the Jesuit Etienne Binet (1569–1639; see Chapter 39, entitled ‘La Platte-Peinture’, in Massing, 1990). Parts of Binet’s essay were copied in another early treatise, Pierre Lebrun’s essay on painting of 1635, now known as ‘The Brussels manuscript’; it is well known today and easily accessible due to Merrifield’s Original Treatises on the Arts of Painting (London, 1849). Under the chancellorship of the painter Charles Le Brun (1619–90) and with the protection of the French King Louis XIV (who wished to demonstrate his power through patronage of the arts), the French Royal Academy developed into a much more influential organisation than its Italian ‘mother academies’, becoming a state monopoly. As a result most authors on painting and painting techniques were influenced by academic thinking, which prioritised content, not painterly quality. This began to change by mideighteenth century, but in the seventeenth century, the act of painting itself was considered basically mechanical – compositions were to be created first in the head, then transferred to canvas in an almost prescribed formula: (1) sketch, or ébauche; (2) building up of paint layer, or empâter; (3) finishing touches (see, for example, Jean-Baptiste Oudry’s (1666–1755) Discours sur la pratique de la peinture, Paris 1861–62). For the French theorist, a pentimento was a failure, not a witness of creativity.The exploration of different compositional possibilities directly on the canvas, as Titian had done, was dismissed by the Academy with unanimity. The painter and engraver Roger de Piles (1635–1709) was the defender of the colourists against André Félibien (1619–95) in the rivalry between the Rubénistes and the Poussinistes (based on the Italian debates on disegno and colore); the discussions in France dominated the French Academy lectures for many years during the seventeenth century – and beyond. De Piles’s edition of Charles Alphonse Du Fresnoy’s writings on painting was one of the most influential books on art theory of the seventeenth century. Most publications of the seventeenth century were more concerned with the theory of painting than with the practical, and this was no exception. However, De Piles’s treatise was later augmented by the marchand libraire Charles Antoine Jombert (in 1766 and 1776), and it became the most important source book for eighteenth-century painting technique. Jombert’s publication treats all aspects of painting, and his description of the materials and techniques used by French artists is the most comprehensive of his time. One delightful exception to the dominance of the Academy’s rules and influence (despite the title, which refers to the private academies that still existed) is the Académie de la peinture (Paris, 1679), the treatise of the multitalented de La Fontaine, an ingénieur ordinaire du Roy (from the Latin ingenium meaning talent or skill). His book, largely based on his own personal experience, is an account of the received wisdom of the day on many subjects, including oil painting, and is written in a charming manner. Another treatise well worth further study is by Philippe de La Hire (1640–1718), a mathematician who originally trained as a painter in Venice. Written in 1694, his essays were published by the French Academy only in 1730. By mid-eighteenth century, facilitated by increasing economic and printing possibilities, the number of treatises on painting techniques – and other publications such as encyclopaedias or dictionaries with practical advice on how to paint – multiplied. From 1751 to 1765, several entries discussing painting techniques were published in Denis Diderot’s ground-breaking encyclopaedia, which made a vast amount of technical information widely available, thus doing away with the ‘secrets’ held by craftsmen. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the number of texts describing painting techniques increased significantly all over Europe, and it was no longer possible to speak of a ‘French’ method of painting: treatises were translated into other European languages, and the artists themselves travelled more frequently and easily. One important text is by Pierre Louis Bouvier (1766–1836), a miniature painter and student of François-Xavier Fabre, whose treatise written for young artists and amateur painters was originally published in 1827, then reprinted in numerous editions and translations. Other sources of special interest are the treatises by the peintre d’impression Jean Felix Watin (Paris, 1744); Dom Antoine-Joseph Pernety (Paris, 1757), a miniaturist painter and member of the Benedictine order; as well as the two volumes on varnishes by Pierre François Tingry (Geneva, 1803). Jean-François-Léonor Mérimée’s (1757– 1836) De la Peinture à l’Huile of 1830, translated into English in 1839, is also full of technical information, as are the publications by Karl Robert (Paris, 1878) and Jehan Georges Vibert (1891). But perhaps the most 13 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. extraordinary source book is the nine-volume treatise on painting published in 1829 by Jacques Nicolas Paillot de Montabert (1771–1849), a former student of Jacques-Louis David. Paillot’s encyclopaedic knowledge covered every aspect of painting: history of art, light and optics, painting materials and techniques, as well as painting restoration (for a bibliography of French treatises see Massing, 1990). 1.15 Spanish sources (see Appendix IV) In Spain, the practical focus of the guild system was slowly moulded by the intellectual refocusing of the Italian Renaissance, which culminated in the mid-eighteenth century with the foundation of the Spanish Academy of Art. As early as the sixteenth century, a conscious separation of ‘art’ from ‘craft’ finds expression, for example, in formulations of guild ordinances, which sometimes expressed the superiority of painters over specialist craftsmen such as the preparers, who gilded and applied the grounds to panels (Nadolny, 2008a). Apart from the excellent work of Véliz, 1986, which includes important sections from many treatises on paintings, there have been few translations of the original Spanish texts to English. Useful texts, such as the late sixteenth-century Reglas para pintar by an anonymous author, remain largely unknown outside of Spain (Bruquetas Galán, 1998). Equally, Bruquetas Galán’s (2002) definitive work on the techniques of Golden Age Spanish painting (spanning roughly the late sixteenth to the late seventeenth century), which includes extensive reproductions of documentary material of many types, has not yet been translated. The most-studied Spanish treatises on painting technique were written by practising painters, and were designed to provide a learned discourse on both the history and art of painting, inspired by the famous, earlier works such as Vasari’s. Arte de la pintura, written by Francisco Pacheco in 1638, provides a good example. It combines practical knowledge with a humanist approach, mixing excerpts of contemporary Italian, German, and Flemish texts on painting with original material describing Pacheco’s own experiences and observations.Véliz noted how his treatise was ‘a kind of propaganda piece for his ideal of the erudite painter’, which may have influenced his emphasis on certain techniques while omitting other less ‘noble’ ones (Véliz, 1986: 32).The most encyclopaedic of the Spanish texts is that of Antonio Palomino y Velasco, a three-volume work composed 1715–24. The first volume deals with the theory of painting and is directed to painters as well as learned readers; the second focuses on technical aspects of painting and was intended for the practising artist, and the third records the lives of prominent Spanish painters and sculptors from the fifteenth century to Palomino’s time (again, in the style of Vasari). While these two well-known works implied a larger aim of elevating the status of painting, some texts follow an older, more practical tradition, such as Martínez’s image-based work, which draws upon the use of modelbooks (Véliz, 1998b: 308–14). In 1744, the foundation of the Academia de San Fernando in Madrid followed the lead of Rome and Paris in the repositioning of painters amongst the European intelligentsia (Goldstein, 1996: 49). However, locally, painters still struggled with practical problems such as the refusal of tax collectors to recognise them as practitioners of the liberal arts and thus accord them the tax-exempt status granted to other colleagues (Véliz, 1998b). Under the academic influence, many of the Spanish works on painting written in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries adopted the humanist, art-theoretical approach (a list of the most important may be found in Rodríguez de Ceballos, 2003), rather than concentrating on practical matters such as methods and materials. 1.16 Northern Europe (see Appendix V) In the north of Europe, as in the south, the example set in Italy was a compelling one.The academic system was established under many different European rulers in many cities, beginning in the seventeenth century, for example in Antwerp (1663), The Hague (1682), and Berlin (1696). And, as in the south, the system of practical training in the workshops of individual artists (especially that of Rembrandt, in the north) continued to play an important role. The German Illuminierbuch of von Ruffach (1549) is an excellent 14 Art technological source research example of how older forms of collected information were perpetuated but now in the form of printed books. Translated into many languages, it is easily accessible to the English reader (see Appendix V, below). An example of a typical testimony direct from the painter’s studio can be found in the treatise by the Dutch painter Willem Beurs’s De Groote Waereld in ‘t Kleen geschildert, published in Amsterdam in 1692 and translated into German one year later. Beurs’s (1656–?) focus is on still-life painting, and the text is clearly based on his own methods. Research comparing the treatise with results from scientific analysis of seventeenth-century Dutch still-life paintings has demonstrated its accuracy in describing contemporary practice (Wallert, 1999: 32–7). While Beurs’s work embodies sound practical experience, not all texts of a technical nature were composed by painters. The de Mayerne Manuscript (1620–40), compiled by Theodore Turquet de Mayerne (1573–1655), the court physician of James I and Charles I of England, is a well-known example of a compilation of receipts composed for intellectual interest. The manuscript consists of recipes on oil-painting techniques gathered both from older written sources and through information obtained through conversations with the many painters employed at the court, including Rubens and Van Dyck. Due to its great detail and accuracy, the manuscript is one of the most important texts on Baroque painting techniques. Another Dutch treatise on painting was written by Simon van Eikelenberg, a rather obscure painter, who was better known as a cartographer and as a historian of his native town, Alkmaar. He had interests in science and philosophy, and was familiar with treatises by many earlier authors.Van Eikelenberg wrote his notes between 1686 and 1732, which were intended as practical instructions for painters and illuminators. In his introduction to the section on illumination he justified his inclusion of extensive instructions on the preparation of pigments and other materials by noting that: We are often the victims of the selfishness of paint-manufacturers and dealers and pay a high price for bad materials. Lack of knowledge of the essentials of pigment manufacture must be overcome. (van Schendel, 1958) These texts are exceptions in their practicality; in comparison, most seventeenth-century Dutch texts are more theory based, although they too may provide important information on artistic practice. Karel van Mander, Dutch painter and theorist, published his Schilder-boeck in 1604. It is one of the earliest theoretical treatises on Netherlandish painting, drawing, and printmaking. Mixed in with the theory is a wealth of material on workshop practice. The book was influential, and the section containing the Lives of many fifteenth- and sixteenth-century artists was frequently cited for centuries to come. While Van Mander followed Vasari’s model in describing the great artists of the northern schools, he demonstrated his own preference for Venetian art and the use of colore (in contrast to Vasari’s Tuscan bias), and he wrote in praise of the naturalism typical of Netherlandish painting. Many treatises following Van Mander’s text based themselves upon it or referenced it extensively. Samuel van Hoogstraeten (1678) and Joachim Von Sandrart (1675–79) borrowed and amended large parts of the Grond. Such seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century treatises, including Gerard De Lairesse’s (1707) and Arnold Houbraken’s (1718–21) texts, are largely theoretical, containing only short though often insightful passages on techniques. 1.17 England (see Appendix VI) In England, after the fifteenth century, through until the early eighteenth century, painting was largely dominated by artists of foreign origin (for the documentary literature pre-1700, Talley, 1981 is a rich source). In recent years, the ongoing work of the National Portrait Gallery, London, ‘Making Art in Tudor Britain’, has brought a wealth of information to light on early English painting technique and materials (www.npg.org.uk/research/programmes/making-art-in-tudor-britain/). 15 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. Over the course of the eighteenth century, English art gradually moved from foreign dominance (works such as the notebooks of Englishman Richard Symonds, written in the seventeenth century, testify to the fascination for, amongst others, Italian techniques; see Beal, 1984) and took on its own particular character, expressed primarily through the genres of portrait and landscape painting. The founding in England of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures in 1754 introduced a deliberate promotion of the arts leading to an increase in published texts on oil-painting techniques. Robert Dossie’s The Handmaid to the Arts, published in 1758, was dedicated to the Society and remains one of the key texts on eighteenthcentury British oil painting. Another important period text published and used well into the nineteenth century was Thomas Bardwell’s The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Easy, 1756. A good number of documentary sources, useful illustrations of period tools, and depictions of artists’ practice in England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries may be found in J. Ayres’s publication of 1985. Several publications present lists of source books; see, for example: Hiler (1934); Holt (1947); Ogden and Ogden (1947); Bazzi (1960); the French publication by Guillerme (1964); but above all the impressive tomes (in German) by Johannes Dobai (1974–84). 1.18 Case study: Types of nineteenth-century documentary sources for painting illustrated through the example of Britain Introduction As the documentary source material is so copious for the nineteenth century, it is difficult for a brief overview essay such as this to do it justice. However, certain basic forms of evidence are particularly characteristic for this time. Therefore, as the situation in England has been so well examined, a review of the English sources will be used as a case study of the types of developments in source materials (not in specific techniques and materials, which of course varied) throughout Europe. The categories of typical nineteenth-century technical publications are as follows: • Handbooks and reference manuals, a pre-existing source, now much more widely used and developed. • Compendia on the arts, an outgrowth of the earlier Enlightenment tendency to produce encyclopaedic collections. • Instruction manuals (this group being the most informative on painting practice) (Carlyle, 2001, Introduction: 1–19). • Periodical publications – journals and newspapers; in 1665, the first published ‘scientific’ journals appeared in France (Journal des Sçavans) and in England (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London); many other titles followed which accepted contributions ranging from transcriptions of historical texts to accounts of the industrial production of painting materials. In light of the latter type of document, published journals, the first devoted to painting materials and techniques, Technische Mitteilungen für Malerei, was founded in 1884 in Germany (see Nadolny on artists’ academies, Chapter 21.3.2). Its pages are a rich source of evidence on the current debates on painting technique. However, before its foundation, the rising quantity of periodical publications provided ample opportunity for works on the technical aspects of painting and production of materials, and many articles of interest were translated from one language into another (Nadolny, 2003b). To this list other sources can be added, such as artists’ papers (Melissa Katz, 1998, for example, provided a exemplary study of an artist – Holman Hunt – writing on his own technique), colourmen’s inventories and catalogues, manufacturers’ recipe books, and more theoretical treatises that may be instructive on artistic practice. The following section will examine the evidence for these documents in Britain. 16 Art technological source research The dates by which different countries established academies of painting and developed their own identity in terms of style differed greatly. However, generally by the nineteenth century, distinct national schools could be discerned, and a robust technical literature was being produced in most countries. England was no exception. The foundation of the English Royal Academy in 1768 came a bit later than in many other countries. However, like its predecessors, it focused its more practical education on drawing, with limited instructions on oil-painting techniques. Many authors of late-eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury technical texts expressed the need for more extensive and systematic teaching in oil painting, which at that time was mainly learned through private tuition (Pevsner, 1973: 168, 232). In 1853, reacting to the leading position of the continent and France in particular (through its Academies of Art as well as its government involvement in art education), a Government Select Committee led an inquiry into these issues resulting in the establishment of the Science and Art department (Carlyle, 2001: 1–2; see also Chapter 21.3.2). Colourmen such as George Field, however, were already investigating and testing artistic materials and methods, and publishing results. Much of the following material is discussed in greater detail in Carlyle (2001). 1.18.1 England: Handbooks and reference manuals, compendia of the arts Unlike instruction books (see below), handbooks and reference manuals were usually not written by practising artists but by chemists and colour manufacturers (Carlyle, 2001: 11). An early example of a text by a manufacturer is the so-called ‘Pekstok papers’, the papers of the Dutch paint-manufacturer Willem Pekstok (Cologne ca. 1634–Amsterdam 1691), which survive in a copy by his son Pieter. Pekstok was a successful manufacturer, businessman, and exporter. His recipes detail the manufacture of vermilion, for which Holland was then famous (Van Schendel, 1982), and also verdigris, processed indigo, and red and yellow lake pigments (Hermens and Wallert, 1998). One of the best-known reference manuals is George Field’s Chromatography; or A Treatise on Colours and Pigments, and of their Powers in Painting &c. First published in 1835, this influential book appeared in 15 further editions, as well as forming the basis of numerous other publications by other authors (Carlyle, 1991). Field, a colourman, was in contact with many English artists (Harley, 1979: 75). Field’s reputation for the manufacturing of high-quality pigments made him popular with the Pre-Raphaelites who appreciated the brilliance and permanence of his colours as corresponding with the quality of colours from the past (Smith, 2004: 11). His manuscript notebooks (compiled from 1804–25) have survived. Field’s notebooks were given by him to his friend and assistant Henry Charles Newton.They are held at Winsor & Newton (see Appendix VII). (They are not available for public inspection, but a set of photographs of the manuscripts, with colour slides of the results of his pigment experiments, are held in the library of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London where they may be seen by appointment. Reference code: GB 1518 CI/GF.) Harley noted Field’s tests on the permanence of colours and his connections with contemporary painters as especially interesting for conservators and art historians. Of particular relevance in this context is Field’s notebook, Examples and Anecdotes of Pigments, Practical Journal, from 1809 (Harley, 1979), which contains over 100 samples of watercolours; Field commented on their quality and described his suppliers, including artists and other colourmen. Field’s Chromatography provides information not only on chemical composition of pigments but also on their handling properties, an approach still rooted in traditional art technological texts. Building on Field’s Chromatography was The Chemistry of Paints and Painting, first published in 1890 by Sir Arthur Church, Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Academy from 1879 to 1911 (on Field’s colour theory and influence see Gage, 1999: 214–21). Church’s ‘friends and correspondents’, John Scott Taylor and Arthur P. Laurie (as Church describes them in his preface to the 1915 edition), published Modes of Painting (1890) and Facts about Processes, Pigments and Vehicles (1895) respectively. Scott Taylor elaborated on the composition of commercial oil paints and their durability, while Laurie’s book encouraged students to experiment with the preparation and use of materials (Carlyle, 2001: 14). By the late nineteenth century, 17 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. the contents of the technical texts had changed and the focus was placed mainly on chemical information (Carlyle, 2001: 13). Compendiums repeated information from earlier published sources, often without acknowledgement (Carlyle, 2001: 14–15). Carlyle mentioned the anonymous A Compendium of Colours, volume III of The Artist’s Repository: or Encyclopaedia of the Fine Arts, as containing new information in addition to material based on Bardwell. A related, important type of documentary source for nineteenth-century painting materials can be found in colourmen’s and manufacturers’ archives, such as those of Charles Roberson & Co, Winsor & Newton, Reeves & Sons, and George Rowney & Co. Often only a selection of documentary materials survive. For example, sales catalogues were ephemeral and thus usually discarded; few remain (Clarke, 2008b: 77). Account books and ledgers, in contrast, containing notes on what was bought and by whom, names of suppliers of raw materials, etc. survive in large numbers in the Roberson archive. Recipe books and notes on experiments, as can be found in the notebooks of George Field or in the Winsor & Newton archive, form a key part of information on available materials and their working properties and durability (Clarke, 2008b). (See Appendices VI and VII, below.) 1.18.2 Instruction manuals Instruction manuals were usually written by practising artists or colourmen to instruct on the preparation of mediums, grounds, varnishes etc. Carlyle consulted more than a hundred instruction manuals for The Artist’s Assistant (2001) and noted that pre-1850s manuals are the most informative and detailed while by the end of the century information became more superficial (Carlyle, 2001: 6). Julius Caeser Ibbetson (1759–1817) published An Accidence, or Gamut of Painting in Oil and Watercolours (1803). The text presents a methodical approach to the painting process and includes oil paint samples of colour mixtures and a completed oil painting (Carlyle, 2001: 308). Ibbetson stated in the Dedication that he wished he had had such information available as a student, commenting on the lack of technical training available (1803). George Arnald’s A Practical Treatise on Landscape Painting in Oil (1839) is a similar text. Both provide detailed information on the composition of materials and which are best to use. In J. Bulkley’s Treatise on Landscape Painting in Oil (1821) landscape painting was described, building upon Bardwell, and John Cawse’s Introduction to the Art of Painting in Oil Colours (1822) represents the artist’s own practice and experiments on painting portraits and landscapes (Carlyle, 2001: 8, 287, 290). Later texts by Fielding (1839), Osborn (1845), Sully (1873), Schmutz (1999), Mayer and Myers (2011), and Collier (1886) include information from a wide range of sources, discussing their recommendations, and thus presenting the reader with a wide and valuable range of instructions (see Appendix V and Carlyle, 2001, for additional discussion of these texts). Translated French texts, especially those by Tingry (1803, transl. 1804), Bouvier (1827, transl. abridged version 1845), Mérimée (1830, transl. 1839) and Vibert (transl. 1892) also provided ample technical information and influenced British authors (Carlyle, 2001: 9–11, 286, 312). From the late 1840s, a significant number of instruction manuals and some books on materials and techniques were published by the three main colour manufacturers: Winsor & Newton, Rowney, and Reeves, often as part of a series such as the ‘Shilling handbooks’ from Winsor & Newton (Carlyle, 2001: 8). They often also contained the colourman’s catalogue. After the 1840s, such texts tended to contain less detailed information, showing the dependence of artists on the expertise of the colourmen. In the latter half of the century, chemists such as John Scott Taylor who wrote a heavily revised edition of Field, produced books on the durability and quality of painters’ materials but with less information on actual handling properties. However, artists continued to publish and to include practical details, e.g. William Muckley (1880), Alfred Grace (1881), and John Collier (1886) (Carlyle, 2001: 9, 294, 304, 314). 18 Art technological source research 1.19 Conclusion The extensive body of documentary materials on painting and its often detailed nature debunks one of the major ‘myths’ of art scholarship: that the greatness of the great painters was in large part due to their technical secrets.The celebrated craft ‘secrets’ are, to a large extent, more hyperbole than reality. Generally, great painters and average painters alike used essentially the same materials and methods as are largely recorded in the extant texts. Differences in painting are generally to be found in the spirit, skill, and subtlety with which materials were manipulated, not in any ‘secret ingredients’. Current conditions are ripe for a new golden age of art-technological source research, as an increasing number of digital images of manuscripts and printed sources of all periods are becoming available on the internet, and as the disciplines of conservation and conservation science are producing ever better-educated practitioners. A considered and inquiring approach is necessary for the study of technical texts, as in any good study of history, if one expects to decipher documentary material. The everyday concerns and the original insights of many painters, from the geniuses to the most humble, survive for us to learn from if we make the effort to understand them. In the hands of conservators, this knowledge will help to preserve and interpret their works for many generations to come. Acknowledgements The authors of this chapter wish to express their deep gratitude to all of our colleagues who have contributed to the continuing discussion on source research.We are especially grateful to Karoline Beltinger, Marjolijn Bol, Nicholas Eastaugh, Rocío Bruquetas Galán, Stefanos Kroustallis, Sarah Lowengard, Albrecht Pohlmann, Ad Stijnman, Joyce Townsend, Arie Wallert, and Renate Woudhusen-Keller for their knowledge, generously shared, which has enriched this contribution. Appendices: Art technological resource listings The following section summarises areas of documentary material on painting that have been most extensively studied to date, especially where English translations are available. It is not comprehensive. Rather, it attempts to provide the reader with an indication of the texts that have been most useful. Select collections of bibliographical references to foreign language works have been included when possible. General and reference works In recent times, several more ambitious overview annotated bibliographies of the entire span of European documentary sources have been attempted, although not in English. These include: Bordini (Italian, 1991; Spanish, 1995) and Zindel (2010). Also of general interest are the publications of Brachert (2001, German) and Guineau (2005, French), which provide ‘dictionaries’ for many painting materials. An essential resource for German art technological texts from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern period is Doris Oltrogge’s database (Oltrogge, n.d.) on the website of the Fach Hochschule Köln (Cologne Institute for Conservation Sciences). Appendix I: European sources to ca. 1550 Several general bibliographies of medieval sources exist; Clarke’s listing is especially useful (2001). 19 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. A1.1 Well-known major texts De Diversis Artibus/Schedula Diversarium Artium (‘On Various Arts’) in Latin, by ‘Theophilus’ (a pseudonym), probably a monk writing in Germany, ca. 1130 ± 30. Book I covers painting: making and using materials, mixtures and modelling, and gilding. The rudimentary descriptions of oil-based paints and glazes were of prime interest to the researchers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.The mostly reliable annotated translation and commentary is by Hawthorne and Smith (1963); it may be complemented with the edition by Dodwell (1961). Recent scholarship suggests the work is a compilation of material from several periods (Clarke, 2011). Il libro dell’arte (‘The craftsman’s handbook’) in Italian, by Cennino Cennini, a Tuscan painter, writing some time between 1390 and 1435. Cennini’s treatise bridges medieval and renaissance practice, while consciously looking back to the workshop tradition of Giotto. The focus of the text is primarily on painting (almost all on egg tempera, with a few applications of and mentions of oil media). It is one of the earliest texts to be written in the vernacular and is apparently an original composition based on experience. In contrast to the work of Theophilus, it does not seem to have been accessible to contemporary painters and copyists. The transcription of Frezzato (2003) is to be recommended, while the popular English translation by Thompson (1932–33), although not perfect, is still useful. A1.2 Other texts Mappae clavicula (‘Little key’) in Latin, anonymous. A member of a family of related recipe manuscript compilations, which includes the Lucca manuscript (also known as Compositiones ad tingenda or Compositiones variae) and the Codex Matritensis. Probably composed in Greek ca. ad 600, it incorporates Alexandrian chemistry and Roman technology. It was translated into Latin in the eighth century. A considerable number of manuscripts containing extracts survive from the ninth century onwards. The best introduction is the English translation (which includes a facsimile of two principal manuscripts) by Smith and Hawthorne (1974). No single edition that considers all of the known versions exists, but Smith and Hawthorne’s introduction cites partial editions, lists of manuscripts, and studies. Phillipps (1847) transcribed the Latin of an extensive twelfth-century copy. De coloribus et artibus Romanorum (‘On the colours and arts of the Romans’) in Latin, by Heraclius/ Eraclius. Discovered alongside the text of Theophilus, it ostensibly describes classical craft practices. Parts I and II are probably tenth century from Italy, Part III probably from thirteenth-century France. Two manuscripts are known, as well as numerous fragments. Describes the manufacture of pigments, gilding, varnishes, and one of the earliest descriptions of oil paint (Book 3 𝕊XXIX 260). Edition and English translation in Merrifield (1849). Manuscript of Jean Lebègue, a compilation mainly in Latin, widely known in its publication and English translation by Merrifield (1849). It comprises a collection of substantial texts on techniques of painting and manuscript illumination, together with glossaries of colour and technical terms. Completed in AD 1431, it was compiled from earlier sources and original contributions obtained from a variety of principally northern European informants. More recent editions of parts exist (Clarke, 2001, item 2790; Villela-Petit, 2006). Strasbourg Manuscript, in German, anonymous, a collection of recipes. It survives only as a modern copy of an original destroyed by fire in 1870, but it has been dated on textual grounds to the fourteenth or fifteenth century; recent thought favours ca. 1400. Principally famous for containing early references to oil painting, it gives detailed accounts of many processes and materials. The original German text has been published both by Berger (1897) and by Borradaile and Borradaile (1966). The latter provides the only English translation, but is flawed (Thompson, 1968). It belongs to a larger family of German and Middle-Dutch texts. 20 Art technological source research Tegernsee Manuscript (Liber illuministarum, pro fundamentis auri et coloribus ac consimilibus collectus ex diversis) (‘Book for the book painter, on gold-grounds, paints/colours and similar, collected from various [sources]’) in German and Latin, by members of the Tegernsee Monastery. Produced in the second half of the fifteenth century at the Benedictine abbey of Tegernsee (southern Bavaria), the manuscript contains over 1350 brief technical ‘recipes’, over half dealing with the technology of art. While the main focus is book decoration, there are many recipes for pigments, paints, grounds, adhesives, oil paints, and varnishes. A significant portion of the material is unique to this source. There has been some discussion, in both English and German, of the recipes it contains regarding preparation of wooden supports, instructions for gilding, and tinrelief decoration (e.g. Broekman-Bokstijn et al., 1970: 381, 389, 390; Hecht, 1980; Nadolny, 2003b; Nadolny, 2010). It is particularly valuable as it provides many different recipes for similar materials and processes. Its scale and range make it one of the largest and most important medieval compilations.The only complete edition of the technical recipes, with a modern German translation and commentary, is Bartl et al. (2005). A1.3 Texts less well known but deserving of more attention The Liber diversarum arcium (‘Book of diverse arts’) or ‘Montpellier manuscript’ in Latin, anonymous, is a structured systematic course in painting, representing the ‘state of the art’ of painting ca. 1400. Book 1 describes drawing and everything necessary for painting in aqueous media: preparation of pigments and media, mixtures and modelling, and gilding. Books 2 and 3 describe the special requirements of panel painting in oil and the requirements of mural painting respectively. The core of the text was probably compiled ca. 1300 using mainly northern sources (Theophilus, Heraclius, Mappae clavicula) but with substantial apparently original additions and modifications. Book 4 is largely a fourteenth-century addition of Italian material, treating painting on glass or ceramic, and the preparation of materials useful in frames and other microarchitecture (metals, niello, and dyed textiles). Edited with English translation by Clarke (2011). Líkneskjusmíð (Image maker), in Icelandic, anonymous priest. Early fourteenth-century letter in Icelandic containing a short but detailed description of the preparation and decoration of ‘sculptures, altarpieces, or panels’. It describes preparing the wooden structure and filling gaps, applying ground layers, applying imitation gold and paint. Important as a rare Scandinavian source and for the original, detailed technical descriptions it contains. Most comprehensive transcription and English translation in Plahter (1995a). De diversis coloribus picturis et tincturis, in Middle Dutch, by Johannes De Ketham (British Library MS Sloane 345). Although compiled by a doctor not a painter, this collection of recipes for pigments, oil and other painting, gilding etc., is valuable for recording the state of the art of Netherlandish painting ca. 1500. Edited Braekman (1975: 165–307). A1.4 A1.4.1 Legal and financial documents Guilds An introduction to painters’ guilds, contracts, and the painters’ workshops may be found in Dunkerton, Foister, Gordon, and Penny (1991: 126–41). Painters’ guilds have been most extensively discussed in the context of two German studies: Huth (1923) and Gatz (1936). For an overview of the diversity of crafts that could exist in a single city, the extraordinary publication of the ordinances of all of the crafts (including painters) of the city of Paris, 1269, by de Lespinasse and Bonnardot (1879) is recommended. For a case study in English, see the work on the painters’ guild of London (Englefield, 1923). A1.4.2 Contracts Contracts are published in a vast number of books and articles. Good discussions of the nature of contracts are found in Berg Sobré (1989) and O’Malley (2005). In Berg Sobré see especially ‘Patrons and Contracts’ 21 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. (pp. 27–48) and ‘The Making of a Retable’ (pp. 49–71). In an appendix, ‘Retables and their Contracts’ (pp. 26–337), nine extant retables are presented along with transcriptions and English translations of their surviving contracts. Berg Sobré notes that a ‘sizable number’ of contracts for painted Spanish retables still survive (p. 267) but gives no actual figures. O’Malley (2005) contains an excellent description of the form and content of Italian contracts for painting and provides a detailed analysis of their function. The later edition of Huth (1967) reproduces a selection of contracts for altarpieces, in German. A1.4.3 Accounts A good discussion of the organisation of the studio and of painters’ account books may be found in Thomas (1995). Itemised accounts of the materials bought for the massive painting projects in the churches and courts of Europe are scattered throughout many publications (e.g. Nadolny, 2000, vol. 2, App. 4). Examples of expenditures in medieval England are found in Smith (1807), Salzman (1952), and Erskine (1981, 1983), among others. A1.4.4 Further reading: collections and bibliographies Mrs Mary Philadelphia Merrifield’s Original Treatises dating from the XIIth to XVIIIth Centuries on the Arts of Painting (1849) contains a useful collection of texts, both originals and translations, with long explanatory essays and notes (somewhat superseded but still relevant).The study of trade in painters’ materials edited by Kirby, Nash, and Cannon (2010) contains much information regarding commercial documentary sources for painters’ materials. Clarke (2001) is a study of medieval art technological sources. Along with an introduction to the field, including notes on the principal medieval sources, the author presented a catalogue of over 430 manuscripts that contain technical recipes, with an annotated bibliography of their editions and translations. Appendix II: Italian treatises Leone Battista Alberti, De pictura, 1435 (first published edition, in Italian: Della pittura, Basel, 1540).The first truly theoretical work on the visual arts. Not a rich source for materials and techniques but highly influential for the development of the literature on paintings and for art theory. Available in English translation: Spencer, 1966. Giorgio Vasari, Le vite de’ più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori italiani, da Cimabue insino a’ tempi nostri, two vols, Florence, 1550. Second, revised edition: Le vite de’più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori, Florence, 1568. Both contain biographies.The 1568 edition added further lives of both living and dead artists from 1550–67.The most complete edition of 1568 (with notes on the 1550 edition) is that by Milanesi (1878–85, reprinted 1906, reissued 1978–82). For a modern edition of the 1550 edition see Bellosi and Rossi (1991). English translations from e.g. de Vere (1912–15, 1979), Hinds and Gaunt (1963). Vasari’s text is the source of one of the most durable myths of technical art history: that oil painting was ‘invented’ by Van Eyck in 1420. This has been demonstrated to be entirely false; oil media were in use at least from the early Middle Ages. Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo, Trattato della Arte della Pittura, Milan, 1584. Subsequently, three editions printed in 1584, one in 1585, all with small changes. Also, Idea del Tempio della Pittura, Milan, 1590. The Trattato consists of seven books discussing painting as an art with rules and principles that one could learn (Ackerman, 1967: 323). Although the two texts should be seen as a continuous production, the Trattato contains practical information on proportion, expression of emotions, colour, light and shade, perspective, genre, and subjects. The Idea consists of seven components of which five are theoretical in character, while the sections on composizione and forma are concerned with more practical aspects of painting. For an English 22 Art technological source research translation of the Trattato, see R. Haydocke, A Tracte Containing the Artes of Curious Paintinge, Carvinge & Buildinge, Oxford, 1598. See for an analysis of the development of the texts via various drafts: Ackerman, 1967. Raffaello Borghini, Il Riposo, Florence, 1584. Borghini (1541–ca. 1588) was a poet and writer, active at the Medici courts and a friend of Vasari. Long essays on art theory and techniques and biographies of artists. Raffaello Borghini’s ‘Il Riposo’. Edited and translated by Lloyd H. Ellis, Jr (The Lorenzo da Ponte Italian Library) (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007). Ellis’s edition leaves out quite a lot, most crucially part of Book II which contains the most substantial part of information on practice. Giovanni Battista Armenini, De veri precetti della pittura, Ravenna, 1586. Armenini is known more for his treatises than for his painting.The text contains anecdotes about artists and art works as well as information on painting techniques. English translation: Giovanni Battista Armenini, On the True Precepts of the Art of Painting, Edward J. Olszewski, tr. and ed. (Burt Franklin & Co) 1977, or edition by M. Gorreri (Einaudi, 1989). Filippo Baldinucci, Vocabolario toscano dell’arte del disegno, Florence, 1681. Baldinucci s dictionary explains terminology on art materials, tools, and techniques used in painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving (Goldberg, 1988). Appendix III: French treatises to 1900 For an extensive bibliography of French treatises, see Massing (1990). Lebrun, Pierre, Recueil des essaies des merveilles de la peinture, s. l. 1635 (Merrifield, 1849). The first chapter, de la platte peinture, is on oil painting. De Piles, Roger, L’art de la peinture d’Alphonse Dufresnoy, traduit en françois, avec des remarques necessaires et très amples, Paris, 1673 and 1684. Roger de Piles (1635–1790) was an amateur painter and a prolific writer on the arts.This edition of Charles-Alphonse Du Fresnoy’s writings from 1641–65 (including his poem De arte graphica with De Piles’s own ample comments) was published posthumously by De Piles. It became one of the most influential books on art theory of the seventeenth century. It appeared first in 1673 and was significantly revised in 1684 and several times during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.There are many English translations, the earliest perhaps by John Dryden, De Arte Graphica [The art of painting], London, 1695. Félibien, André, Des principes de l’architecture de la sculpture, de la peinture, Paris, 1676. Each of the three main parts begins with a general discussion followed by chapters on specific techniques and materials, including drawing, fresco, oil painting, enamelling, mosaic, and marquetry. There is also a dictionary of terms connected with the arts. Boutet, Claude, École de la mignature: Dans laquelle on peut aisément apprendre à peindre sans maître, avec le secret de faire les plus belles couleurs l’or bruni & l’or en coquille, Lyon, 1679. Boutet himself described this book as an ‘ABC of miniature painting’. La Fontaine, Jean-Henry de, L’Académie de la peinture, Paris, 1679.The sections of this treatise related to painting techniques are published in Massing (1998: 377–90). Although some passages are similar to those in Du Fresnoy, and he cites Félibien, La Fontaine (ca. 1600–after 1678) does not seem to have read Félibien’s treatises on painting technique of 1676, nor does he appear to have been aware of events within the Academy of Painting; several remarks in the treatise confirm that he was living outside Paris. His account was of the accepted, received wisdom of the time. For La Fontaine, Charles Le Brun (1619–90) was the greatest contemporary painter. Secrets concernans les arts et metiers, Paris, 1716. Nouvelle edition revue, corrigée et considerablement augmentée, 2 vols, Nancy, 1721; also Paris, 1724. Many other editions were published, often in a single volume, such as: Avignon, 1751; Bruxelles, 1766; Caen, 1781; and Paris, 1790, 1791. A book of secrets, including some on pigments and painting, also detailed information on the colours used in the dyeing industry, copied practically word for word from De Piles (Jombert, 1766 and 1777). Contains recipes for 23 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. varnishes, colours, and oils, for oil mural painting and miniatures, all well described.This book was the source for Watin (1753) and others. La Hire, Philippe de, ‘Traité de la pratique de la peinture’, in Memoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences depuis 1666 jusqu’a 1699, Paris, 1730, 635–730. Philippe de La Hire’s (1640–1718) text was written at the end of the seventeenth century, read as a lecture to a session of the Académie des Sciences in 1709, but published only in 1730. He gives advice on drawing, oil, tempera, and miniature painting, fresco, mosaic and enamel painting, painting on glass, pigments, and tools for painting. An under-studied source. Diderot, Denis and d’Alembert, Jean le Rond (eds), Encyclopédie: ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des metiers, par une société de gens de lettres, Paris, 1751–65. Diderot’s encyclopaedia, the most complete of its day, remains a most important reference work; 35 volumes are arranged in alphabetical order with articles by more than 160 contributors. Watin, Jean Felix, L’art du peintre, doreur et vernisseur, Paris, 1753. The book includes chapters about materials, colours, and procedures, plus a dictionary of technical terms. Translated to other languages, such as German and Dutch, but not to English. Laget reprint 1977. Pernety, Antoine-Joseph, Dictionnaire portatif de peinture, Paris, 1757. The introduction is a rich source of information on tempera, fresco, encaustic, oil, miniature painting, painting on glass, and pastels. De Piles, Roger, Les premiers éléments de peinture pratique. Nouvelle édition entierement refondue et augmentée considérablement [by] Charles-Antoine Jombert père, Amsterdam and Leipzig, 1766 and 1776. Much of this text is copied from Secrets concernant les arts et métiers of 1716; see especially Chapter VII, ‘Des secrets concernant les tableaux peints à huile’. Alletz, Pons Augustin, L’Albert moderne, ou nouveau secrets, Paris, 1768. The editions of this popular book of secrets are numerous.The book is divided into three parts in alphabetical order. Among the recipes are secrets concerning the art of painting, including how to make Naples yellow, how to paint with pastels made with wax or encaustic, recipes for varnish, and how to revive old oil paintings. Watelet, Claude-Henri and Pierre Charles Lévesque, Dictionnaire des arts de la peinture, Paris, 1792. Watelet (1718–86) was an amateur d’art with considerable knowledge. He died before completing his oeuvre, which Lévesque continued. Tingry, Pierre François, Traité théorique et pratique sur l’art défaire et appliquer les vernis, Geneva, 1803. Translated into English and published as: The painter and varnisher’s guide, London, 1804 (discussed in Carlyle, 2001: 327–8). Older, often inadvisable, methods are repeated as well as the then current practice for varnishing paintings.The French were known for their use of egg-white varnishes; for a complete bibliography on that subject see Woudhuysen-Keller and Woudhuysen (1994). Bouvier, Pierre Louis, Manuel des jeunes artistes et amateurs en peinture, Paris, 1827.The English translation includes the writings of Mérimée, Paillot de Montabert, etc. (New York, 1845).This was a popular handbook with numerous editions and translations, with (usually) good advice partly derived from Watin. Paillot de Montabert, Jacques-Nicolas, Traité complet de la peinture, 9 vols, Paris, 1829. A valuable compilation of information from the period relating to painting and painting techniques. Paillot de Montabert (1771–1849) was also interested in the history of painting techniques, especially those from Antiquity and the Middle Ages, including encaustic painting. See especially Volume 9. Mérimée, Jean-François-Léonor, De la peinture à l’huile, Paris, 1830. Translated into English by W.B. Sarsfield Taylor as The Art of Painting in Oil, London 1839 (Carlyle, 2001: 312–13). Mérimée was Secretary to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Paris. In his preface he recommended Bouvier’s treatise but admitted that although he was aware of Paillot de Montabert’s publication, he regretted that he had only glanced though it. Pigments are discussed in detail, also preparation of grounds etc. 24 Art technological source research Déon, Horsin, De la conservation et de la restauration des tableaux, éléments de l’art du restaurateur; historique de la partie mécanique de la peinture, depuis sa renaissance jusqu’à nos jours; classification de toutes les écoles; recherches et notices sur quelques grands maitres, Paris, 1851.Written by a painter/ restorer of paintings for the Musée du Louvre, the text is focused on how to treat paintings, but information on painting methods is also provided. Oudry, Jean-Baptiste, ‘Discours sur la pratique de la peinture, et ses procédés principaux: ébaucher, peindre à fond et retoucher’, published in Eugene Piot, Le cabinet de l’amateur, Paris, 1861– 62: 107–17. By the second half of the seventeenth century, authors active in the Academy (Felibien, De Piles, De La Hire, etc.) had codified the painting process into a three-step method: ébaucher, empâter, et retoucher. Oudry was president of the French Academy; his lecture of 1752 included variations on the accepted – almost taken for granted – techniques of the day. See Massing, 1998: 356ff. For an examination of text compared with Oudry’s actual practice see Phenix et al., 2009. Robert, Karl, Traité pratique de la peinture à l’huile, paysage, Paris, 1878 and many later editions. Karl Robert was a prolific author who also wrote on portrait and genre as well as on other techniques. Vibert, Jehan, Georges, La science de la peinture, Paris, 1881. Vibert discusses the scientific basis for mixing colours. Translated into English: The Science of Painting, London, 1892. Gutenberg reprint, 1981. Moreau-Vautier, Ch., La peinture, les divers procédés, les maladies des couleurs, les faux tableaux, Paris, 1913. Étienne Dinet, another Orientalist painter and author, wrote the preface to Moreau-Vautier’s book in which the author traces the history of painting techniques from prehistoric times to the Impressionists. In another publication (Comment on peint aujourd’hui, Paris, 1923), Moreau-Vautier discussed different artists’ techniques in turn. He was the author of numerous other publications on art. Appendix IV: Spanish treatises The treatises of the medieval (see discussion above) and Golden Age Spanish painters have been the most studied. A full discussion of a number of Spanish treatises, along with English translations of sections relating to technique are found in Véliz (1986). In a later publication (Véliz, 1998b), other aspects of the seventeenth-century treatises are discussed in terms of painting and drawing techniques. Vicente Carducho (1568–1638), Diálogos de la Pintura, Madrid 1633. Although heavily embedded in art theory, the eighth dialogue takes a traditional form: a discussion between master and disciple in which painting practice, materials, and tools are discussed (Véliz, 1986: 25–9). Francisco Pacheco, El Arte de la Pintura, Seville, 1638. The treatise is divided into three books; the third, ‘The Practice of Painting and Ways to employ it’, provides ample information on the painter’s practice of a period that is witness to, among others, Zurbaràn, Velázquez, and Murillo. Drawing, painting, polychrome sculpture, composition, and colour are discussed in a manner that unites theory with practice. There is no English translation of the whole; Véliz has translated the first eight chapters of Book III, omitting Chapter 4 and the poems in Chapters 2, 5, and 8 (Véliz, 1982, and 1986: 31–106). Engass and Brown provide another, partial translation (1970). For an edition of the text: Bassegoda i Hugas (2001). Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco, El museo pictórico y la escala óptica, 3 vols, Madrid, 1715–24. The first volume of El museo pictórico was published in 1715, the second and third in 1724. The third volume concerns famous Spanish painters; it has been repeatedly edited and translated, earning Palomino a reputation as the Spanish Vasari. Véliz’s partial English translation focuses on the technical sections in the second volume (Véliz, 1986: 141–89). 25 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. Appendix V: Sources from 1550 until the nineteenth-century Northern European texts There is a rich literature on technical sources in the German language. Julius Schlosser’s (1924) survey of the entire corpus of Western writing on art from antiquity to modern times includes technical treatises and artists’ writings; it is a major work and an essential tool. Berger (1973) is another major work. Eibner (1928) and Ploss (1962: 75–87) also discuss source books on painting technique and painters’ pigments. For more recent bibliographies of German source material, see Koller (1988), Schiessl (1989), Brachert (2001), and Zindel (2010). Heydenreich’s (2007) publication on Cranach presents an excellent example of the useful information that may be derived from documentary sources on German painting. The work of Kinseher (2006) provides insight into the development of source research in Germany. A concise review of sources for seventeenth-century Dutch still-life painting is provided by van Eikema Hommes et al. (1999), and discussion of aspects of many Dutch treatises in van Eikema Hommes (2004). Primary sources Valentin Boltz von Ruffach, Illuminierbuch wie man allerlei Farben bereiten, mischen und auftragen soll, Basel, 1549. One of the most important of the first group of printed texts, published before 1550. Edition of the German original published by Sändig (Walluf, 1976). Karel van Mander, Schilder-boeck, Haarlem, 1604. The section titled Den Grondt is a poem of advice to young painters, principally theoretical, but with some practical detail, such as the quality and durability of pigments and specific painting techniques. The Schilder-boeck itself contains biographies of artists: ancient, Netherlandish, and Italian, with some technical information on the artist’s practice. The original text in Dutch is available online through the Basic Library of the Database of Dutch Literature (www.dbnl.org/ tekst/mand001schi01_01/). It is available as a facsimile with English translation in volume 1 of: Miedema, H. (1994–99). The lives of the illustrious Netherlandish and German painters, 6 vols, Davaco. Theodore Turquet de Mayerne, Pictoria, sculptoria, tinctoria et quae subalternarum atrium spectantia (manuscript), 1620–46, London, British Library, MS Sloane 2052. The first part is written in French in de Mayerne’s hand, followed by an ad hoc collection of notes in English, German, Italian, and Latin. Contains recipes and instructions, some based on other texts but also others more importantly on de Mayerne’s conversations with artists and craftsmen active at the English court. An English translation of variable quality is available: Donald C. Fels, Jr (2004), Lost Secrets of Flemish Painting including the de Mayerne MS 2052, Alchemist. Translation of excerpts and discussion in Talley (1981: 72–147). It is edited by van de Graaf (1958). Samuel van Hoogstraten, Inleyding tot de hooge schoole der schilderkonst, Rotterdam, 1678, facsimile reprint, Doornspijk, 1969. Van Hoogstraeten was a theorist, painter, and draughtsman. Although his treatise is mainly theoretical, the following pages are of interest for technical studies: 26, 29–32, 218, 220–3, 241, 306, 321, 333–40. Although it does not provide much material specifically on technique, the work of Brusati is useful for contextualising Hoogstraten’s work (C.A. Brusati (1995) Artifice and Illusion: The Art and Writing of Samuel van Hoogstraten, University of Chicago Press). Gerard de Lairesse, Het Groot Schilderboek 2 vols, Amsterdam, 1707. Lectures de Lairesse gave after his blindness stopped his painting career cover a wide range of topics. Although strongly theoretical, technical information is found throughout. Translated into many languages in the eighteenth century, it exists in several English editions; the earliest is that of J.F. Fritsch, London (1738). Arnold Houbraken, De Groote Schouburgh der Nederlantsche Konstschilders en schilderessen, 3 vols, Amsterdam, 1718–21. Houbraken was a painter, draughtsman, engraver, book illustrator, and theorist. His biographies discuss artists born from 1466 until 1659, and contain remarks and comments on their 26 Art technological source research studio practice. For a study of Houbraken, see H. Horn (2000), The Golden Age Revisited. Arnold Houbraken’s Great Theatre of Netherlandish Painters and Paintresses, Davaco. Cröker, Johann Melchior, Der Wohl Anführende Mahler, Jena 1719, 1736. Reprint 1982 with introduction, bibliography (of treatises cited by Cröker) and glossary by Ulrich Schiessl. A compilation based on older writings. Cröker presented all of what was known at the time about oil painting. Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, ‘Vom Alter der Ölmalerei aus dem Theophilus Presbyter’, in Braunschweig: in der Buchhandlung des Fürstlichen Waysenhauses. Reprinted in subsequent editions of Lessing’s collected works. First publication to draw attention to Theophilus. Hackert, Philipp, Ueber den Gebrauch des Firnis in der Mahlerey. Ein Sendschreiben des berühmten Landschaftmahlers Philipp Hackert, an den Ritter Hamilton, ehemaligen Grosbrittannischen Gesandten in Neapel Aus dem Italianischen übersetzt von F.L.R., Dresden, 1800. Hackert was a landscape painter and friend of Goethe; his keen interest in painting technique makes his letter an important and often quoted source. Knirim, Friedrich, Die Harzmalerei der Alten. Ein Versuch zur Einführung einer, weit mehr Vortheile als Oel-, Wachs-, Frescoe- und Temperawasser-Malerei gewährenden und sowohl zu Wandals zu StaffeleiGemälden von allen grössen brauchbaren Malerei nach dem Beispeile der Alten, sowie Verbesserung der Fondamente und zur Ausbildung der Farbengebung nach Göthe’s Farbenlehre &c., Leipzig, 1839. A thorough discussion of the painting techniques of the ‘Ancients’ with mention of various treatises. The author did his own experiments with painting techniques, and there are practical pointers, but the text is mainly theoretical. Johan Gentele, Lehrbuch der Farbenfabrikation. Braunschweig, 1860. An example of the important German works on paint manufacture, widely used and reprinted into the twentieth century. The German chemist Gentele was employed by the Swedish paint manufacturer Becker for much of his career. Technische Mitteilungen für Malerei (Technical Communications on Painting), first published in 1884 by Adolf Keim (Kinseher, 2006). This monthly journal is the predecessor of the well-known journal devoted to conservation, Restauro. It is a rich source of technical information through interdisciplinary discussions about painting materials and techniques used by both old masters and contemporary artists. Authors – who were chemists, restorers, and artists – discussed the application and stability of materials in conjunction with damages and changes in the appearance of paintings. Appendix VI: British treatises on oil painting The nineteenth-century sources listed here are based on Carlyle (2001, with its full, annotated bibliography, pp. 281–331). Haydock, Richard, A Tracte Containing the Artes of Curious Paintinge, Carvinge & Buildinge, written first in Italian by J. Paul Lomatius, painter of Milan and Englished by R.H., 1598. Haydock discusses proportion, colour and the division of painting. Hilliard, Nicholas, A Treatise concerning the Arte of Limning [ca. 1600] … together with a more compendious Discourse concerning ye Art of Liming by Edward Norgate with parallel modernised text edited by R.K.R. Thornton and T.G.S. Cain, Hatfield, 1981.The original manuscript is not signed (and was perhaps unfinished), but there is no doubt its traditional authorship to the portrait painter Hilliard (ca. 1547–1619) is correct. Peacham, Henry, The Art of Drawing with the Pen, and Limning in Watercolours [ca. 1606], London, 1906. Reprint 1970. A practical discussion of how to paint in watercolour and of the pigments to use. Bate, John, The Mysteryes of Nature and Art … contained in several treatises … the third of drawing, colouring, painting, and engraving, London, 1634. An early treatise with very practical advice on how to paint with gum Arabic or with linseed oil using ‘a Palette (so called by Artists)’. 27 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. Richard Symonds, Manuscript Egerton, 1636, British Library. The notebook, compiled by Richard Symonds (1617–92?) is a mixture of English and Italian, and a large part of the information derives from the Italian painter Giovanni Angelo Canini, including comments on ground layers, working in oil and fresco, and setting up a palette. The notebook also contains a few sketches of painting equipment (Beal, 1984). Norgate, Edward, Miniatura or the Art of Limning, ca. 1646. Edited from the Manuscript in the Bodleian Library and collated with other Manuscripts by Martin Hardie, Oxford, 1919. The pigments used to paint are introduced and how to use them, with advice on how to paint from life and referring to Hillyard and Mr Isac Olivier. See also under Hilliard (ca. 1600). Salmon, William, Polygraphice; or the Art of Drawing, Engraving, Etching, Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Colouring, and Dying, 1672. Before the end of the century there were many further editions of this important publication: 1673, 1675, 1678, 1679, 1681, 1685, and 1701. Barrow, John, Dictionarium Polygraphicum; or, the Whole Body of Arts Regularly Digested, containing, I. The Arts of Designing, Drawing, Painting, Washing Prints, Limning, Japanning, Gilding in all their various kinds. Also Perspective, the Laws of Shadows, Dialling, &c., 2 vols, London, 1735, 2nd edition 1758. Detailed instructions are given on most issues related to oil painting; the information is presented alphabetically, under, for example: Oil, Picture,Varnish, and various individual pigments. Bardwell, Thomas, The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Easy, London, 1756. Editions from 1756–1940. Contains unique information on artists’ materials, instructions for the preparation of varnish taken from French artists, plus references to various other sources. Thomas Bardwell (1704–67) was an English portrait painter who ran a paint supply business (Carlyle, 2001: 281–2). A comparison between his treatise and his paintings was made by Talley and Groen (1975) and White (1975). Dossie, Robert, The Handmaid to the Arts. London, 1758. Rich sources on eighteenth-century oil painting often repeated in later sources. Dossie was an apothecary who published on pharmacy, chemistry, and agriculture. He was very influential in the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce from 1760 onwards (Carlyle, 2001: 283–4). Anon., Practical Treatise on Painting in Oil Colours, London, 1795. The publication begins with a Materia Pictoria, or a history of pigments, drugs, varnishes, and other materials that are used in the arts of oil painting, presented in alphabetical order, then continues with practical rules for painting in oil colours (based on Bardwell) with observations on varnish making and pigments. Bowles, Carrington, The Art of Painting in Oil, Rendered Familiar to Every Capacity, 2nd edition London, 1799. Bowles describes the three-step painting technique and the method of mixing the colours used. He also wrote The Artist’s Assistant (1773) as well as other books on the technique of drawing, 1794, and painting in watercolours, 1778. Ibbetson, Julius Caesar, An Accidence, or Gamut, of Painting in Oil And Watercolours, part I, London, 1803. The text describes Ibbetson’s painting method and is useful for its detailed information on availability and quality of materials. The second posthumous edition from 1828 contains the recipe for his invention, the medium gumtion (Carlyle, 2001: 308–9). Bulkley, J.A., Treatise on Landscape Painting in oil in a series of easy examples rendered familiar to every capacity by an explanation of the method of mixing colours to the various tints used for landscapes, London, 1821. Published by the colourman G.F. Blackman in London making it the first known nineteenthcentury instruction manual on oil painting to be published by a colourman. Discusses in five sections the depiction of landscapes at different times of the day (Carlyle, 2001: 287). Field, George, Chromatography or A Treatise on Colours and Pigments, and of their Powers in Painting, &c., London, 1835. Editions: 1835, second enlarged: 1841, 1845.The key text on pigments in nineteenthcentury Britain. The second edition adds 148 pages of text on mediums and varnishes including a 28 Art technological source research discussion of new pigments. For an extensive discussion on the various editions and their editors see Carlyle (2001: 299–302). Fielding,Theodore Henry A., On Painting in Oil and Watercolours, for Landscape and Portraits: Including the Preparation of Colours,Vehicles, Oils, &c. Ackermann & Co., London, 1839. ‘This edition and the third enlarged edition (1854) are amongst the most useful instruction manuals consulted’ (Carlyle, 2001: 302–3). Osborn, Laughton (An American Artist), Handbook of Young Artists and Amateurs in Oil Painting, being Chiefly a Condensed Compilation from the Celebrated Manual of Bouvier, with additional matter selected from the Labors of Merimee, De Montabert and other Distinguished Continental Writers in the Art, New York, 1845. This essential source went through eight editions (British: 1847, German: 1875) and contains more detailed practical advice than any other British nineteenth-century source consulted (e.g. including instructions for making paint bladders etc.) (Carlyle, 2001: 317–18). Sully, Thomas, Hints to Young Painters, and the Process of Portrait-Painting as Practiced by the Late Thomas Sully, Philadelphia, 1873. Provides information on the working properties of painting materials. Also describes the techniques of Charles Leslie and Benjamin West (Carlyle, 2001: 325; Mayer and Myer, 2011). Muckley, William Jabez, A Handbook for Painters and Art Students on the Character and Use of Colours, Their Permanent or Fugitive Qualities, and the vehicles Proper to Employ. Also Short Remarks on the Practice of Painting in Oil and Watercolours, London, 1880. Four editions: 1880, 1882, 1885, 1893. Muckley (1829–1901) started his career as a glass artisan but later trained as a painter. In 1862 he became the principal of the Manchester School of Art. Muckley’s text discusses his own practice, next to references to earlier source material ranging from Cennino Cennini to Field. For other books by Muckley see Carlyle (2001: 314–15). Collier, John A., Manual of Oil Painting, London, 1886. Thirteen editions from 1886 to 1907. Collier was a painter of portraits, landscapes, and dramatic subjects. His Manual provides detailed practical information but also compares techniques of other schools, making it one of the most instructive late nineteenthcentury manuals. Collier also wrote Primer of the Art, London, 1882, a largely theoretical and historical reflection on design, and The Art of Portrait Painting, London, 1905, with some technical information spread over the text (Carlyle, 2001: 29). Church, Sir Arthur Herbert, The Chemistry of Paint and Painting, London, 1890. Similar in approach to Field’s Chromatography with updates on the chemical and physical properties of paints. In the 1915 edition, 47 extra pages were added. Church published another text, A Manual on Colour, London, 1887 (Carlyle 2001: 291). Scott Taylor, John, Modes of Painting Described and Classified, London, 1890. Scott Taylor was Scientific Director of Winsor & Newton and was often mentioned, e.g. by Church, as an authority on the chemistry of paint. His text provides concise and clear advice on the use of painting materials and their alternatives (Carlyle, 2001: 301). Laurie, Arthur Pillans, Facts About Processes, Pigments, andVehicles: A Manual for Art Students, London, 1895. There are two parts: the first focuses on experiments to increase the students’ understanding of the chemical properties of their materials and tests on permanence; the second describes painting methods and provides a list of pigments, their composition, and durability. Laurie (1869–1949) became Church’s successor as Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Academy until 1936. He wrote several other books on painters’ methods, among others: The Materials of the Painter’s Craft, 1910, and The Pigments and Mediums of the Old Masters, published in 1914 (Carlyle, 2001: 310–11). Appendix VII: Sample colourmen’s archives in the UK See Carlyle, 2001, and Clarke, 2008b, for more information on colourmen’s archives. 29 J. Nadolny, M. Clarke et al. Lewis Berger & Sons. Founded in the 1760s and still trading. Its nineteenth- and twentieth-century factory archives are held at the London Borough of Hackney Archives Department, reference: D/B/ BER collection. https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/19b53177-a2de-4e6e-af52-3e87870d6deb (accessed 22 September 2020). Reeves. Founded 1766. Still trading. The archives, including at least two nineteenth-century recipe manuscripts, are held at the parent company, ColArt Fine Art & Graphics Ltd, Whitefriars Avenue, Harrow, Middlesex. The Museum of London further holds over 20 paint boxes, many catalogues, a variety of other records, but no recipe manuscripts.The ColArt portion of the archive is not available for public inspection. Robersons. 1819–1985. The archives are held at the Hamilton Kerr Institute, Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge. Around 400 ledgers, plus other records, 12 catalogues (annotated), correspondence, and realia, dating from 1815 to the 1960s, and six recipe books from ca. 1830 to ca. 1902.The account books, containing orders from many important nineteenth- and early twentieth-century British and foreign artists, are indexed in Woodcock and Churchman, 1997. Rowney & Co. Started in 1799, still trading as Daler-Rowney. The archive contains ten catalogues and early examples of its handbook series (Carlyle, 2001: 278). Winsor & Newton. Founded in 1832. Still trading. The archives are held at the parent company, ColArt Fine Art & Graphics Ltd (see above). Of nineteenth-century material, there survive almost 17,000 pages of recipe manuscripts, a dozen heavily annotated catalogues, and an as yet unexplored quantity of account books (Clarke and Carlyle, 2006).There are trade catalogues from 1832–35 to 1900 (Carlyle, 2001: 277–8). The Winsor & Newton archives are not available for public inspection, but the majority of the nineteenthcentury recipe manuscripts have been made available as digital images indexed in a database, which may be consulted at various locations. To apply for access, contact the Hamilton Kerr Institute or Winsor & Newton. www-hki.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/archives/wn/(April 2011). 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